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COMPEJVDlljM 


OE 


AGRICULTURE, 


OR    THE 


;li:im^i  <©W1B^5» 


IN    THE   MOST   ESSENTIAL    PARTS   OF 

HUSBANDRY  AND  GARDENING 5 

COMPILED    FROM    THE    BEST    AJIERICAN    AND    EUROPEAN    PUBLI- 

CW.TIONS,    AND    THE    UNWRITTEN    OPINIONS    OF 

EXPERIENCED   CULTIVATORS. 

Hate  not  laborious  work,  neither  husbandry,  -which  the  Most 
High  hath  ordained.  Son  of  Sirach. 

Cultivators  of  the  earth  are  the  most  virtuous  and  independent 
citizens.  Jefferson. 


By  WILLIAM  DROWN, 

WITH    THE    AID   AND    IJVSPECTIOJV    SP 

SOLOMON  DROWN,  M.  D. 


PROVIDENCE  : 

PRINTED    BY    FIELD    &    MAXCY. 
1824. 


Rhode-Island  District^  8,^. 

Be  if  remembered^  That  on  this  thirtieth  day  of 
^  December  in  the  Year  of  our  Lord  One  Thousand 
1^  Eight  Hundred  and  Twenty  Three,  and  in  the  forty 
^eighth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States 
^  of  America,  Willisun  Drown,  of  said  District,  deposit- 
ed in  this  office  the  title  of  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  he 
claims  as  proprietor,  in  the  following  words,  to  wit :  "  Compend- 
him  of  Agriculture,  or  the  Farmer's  Guide,  in  the  most  essential 
parts  of  Husbandry  and  Gardening  ;  compiled  from  the  best  Amer- 
ican and  European  publications,  and  the  unwritten  opinions  of  ex- 
perienced cultivators.  '  Hale  not  laborious  work,  neither  husb- 
andry, which  the  Most  High  hath  ordained.' — Son,  of  Sirach. — 
'  Cultivators  of  the  earth  are  the  most  virtuous  and  independent 
citizens.' — Jefferson.  By  William  Drown,  with  the  aid  and  in- 
spection of  Solomon  Drown,  M.  D." 

In  conformity  to  an  act  of  Congress  of  the  United  State,  entitled 
"  an  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the 
copies  of  maps,  charts  and  books  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of 
such  copies  during  the  time  therein  mentioned  ;"  and  also  to  an 
act,  entitled  *■'  an  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  se- 
curing the  copies  of  maps,  charts  and  books  to  the  authors  and 
proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  time  therein  mentioned,  and 
extending  the  benefit  thereof  to  the  art  of  designing,  engraving  and 
etching  historical  and  other  prints." 

Witness,  BENJAMIN  COWELL, 

Clerk  of  ifit  Rhode-Island  District,, 


UEC  Om^^lEJS'B  ATIOK . 


The  subscribers  having  been  appointed  by  the 
Rhode-Island  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Domestic 
Industry,  to  examine  Doctor  and  Mr.  William  Drown's 
COMPENDIUM  OF  AGRICULTURE,  feel  great  pleas- 
ure in  stating  that  they  are  satisfied  with  the  work,  and 
de,  therefore,  in  behalf  of  said  Societ}''  recommend  it  to 
their  fellow-citizens,  as  a  production  highly  creditable 
to  the  Authors,  and  likely  to  be  very  useful  to  the  Ag- 
ricultural interest  of  the  country. 


TRISTAM  BURGES, 
J.  B.  FRANCIS 
SAMUEL  KING, 
M.  B.  IVES, 
S.  H.  SMITH, 
W.  E.  RICHMOND, 


)■      Committee. 


'ih 


■—I 


l*\TR0D\]CT10?f. 


s, 


^)ME  Apology  may  seem  necessary  for  publishing 
a  new  work  on  Agriculture  ;   a  subject  which  has  been 
-so  ably  handled  both  in  Europe  and  in   this   country. — 
Let  the  following  suffice  as  all  we  have  time  to  offer  on 
this  head. — That  as  knowledge  is  naturally  advantageous, 
and  as  every  man  ought  to  be  in  the  way  of  information, 
even  a  superfluity  of  books  is  not  without  its  use,  since 
hereby  they  are  brought  to  obtrude  themselves   on   us, 
and  engage  us  unawares.     This  advantage,   an   ancient 
father  observes,  we  owe  to  the  multiplicity  of  books  on 
the  same  subject,  that  one  falls  in  the  way  of  one  man, 
and  another  best  suit«  the  apprehension  of  another. — 
"  Every  thing  that  is  written,"  says  he,  "  does  not  come 
into  the  hands  of  all  persons  :    .perhaps  some  may  meet 
with  my  books,  who  may  hear  nothing  of  others  which 
ha^  e  treated  better  of  the  same  subject.     It  is  of  service, 
therefore,  that  the  same  questions  be  handled  by  several 
persons,  and  after  different  methods,  though  all   on   Ihe 
same  principles,  that  the  explications  of  difficulties,  and 
arguments  for  the  truth,  may  come  to  the  knowledge  of 
ever}^  en?,  by  one  way  or  other."     Add  to  this  that  our 
work  proibsses  little  more  than  to  abridge,  compress. 


"Vl.  INTRODUCTION. 

and  reduce  to  handy  size,  the  voluminous  productions 
on  this  important  subject;  so  that  it  will  require  neither 
much  expense  to  purchase,  nor  time  to  read. 

The  present  is  a  peculiarly  interesting  era  in  the 
agricultural  history  of  our  country.  The  prejudices 
which  have  so  much,  and  so  long  existed  against  the 
introduction  of  improvements  are  rapidly  disappearing, 
and  giving  place  to  general  inquiry  and  the  adoption  of 
the  most  approved  modes  of  cultivation. 

Agriculture  has  within  a  few  years  undergone   a  ma- 
terial  change,   not   only  by  the  progress   made   in^  the 
knowledge  of  the  art  itself,  but  also  by  the  introduction 
of  many  new  implements   of  husbandry,  calculated  to 
facilitate  the  operations  necessary  in   the   cultivation  of 
the  soil.     This  change  is  evidently  owing  to  the  spirited 
exertions  and  publications  of  individuals,   as   well   as  to 
the  mass  of  useful  and  experimental  knowledge,   which 
Agricultural  Societies  have,  with  a  laudable  zeal  and  at- 
tention, given   to  the  public.     With   the  view  of  more 
generally  diffusing  this  desirable  knowledge,  the  editors 
have  been  encouraged   to   attempt   the  following  publi- 
cation, in  which  they  will  endeavour  to  be  as  concise  as 
may  be  consistent  with  a  proper   elucidation  of  the  im- 
portant matters  treated.     From  attentive  observation  we 
are  satisfied  there  is  a  great  deficiency  of  American  pub- 
lications on  this  subject.     European  works   on   Agricul- 
ture,  are  perhaps   more   common  in  this  country  ;    but 
they  are  not  perfectly  adapted  to  a  region  so   different- 
ly circumstanced.     "  Though   English   writers   may  be 
perused  by  the  judicious   to   great  advantage,  yet  local 
circumstances  so  widely  differ  in   the  two   countries,  it 
would  be   unadvisable,   and   periiaps   ruinous,    for    our 
farmers  to  adopt  the  methods  of  culture  in  gross,  which 
they  recommend   to   their  countrymen."     In  compiling 
this  Compendium,  therefore,  we  shall  have  recourse  iiwt 


INTRODUCTION.  Vll. 

6Aly  to  American,  but  also  to  the  best  European  publi- 
cations, lest  any  useful  suggestions,  or  modern  improve- 
ments in  the  art,  should  escape  notice  ;  still  keeping  in 
view  the  difference  of  climate,  seasons,  kc. 

Upon  a  careful  perusal  and  comparison  of  the  works 
in  our  possession,  we  have  found  much  difference  of 
opinion  with  respect  to  many  important  operations  in 
farming.  In  these  cases  we  shall  aim  to  select  the 
practices  most  consistent  with  common  sense. 

Who  will  venture  to  assert  that  we  have  arrived  at 
absolute  perfection  in  all  the  complicated  operations  of 
this  noble  art?  If  not,  why  are  there  so  many  obsti- 
nately wedded  to  their  present  practice,  and  so  hostile 
or  indifferent  to  all  innovation  ?  The  farmer  who  is 
prejudiced  in  favour  of  the  practices  of  his  forefathers, 
fiiay  conclude  he  can  do  well  enough  without  such  aid 
as  this  work  offers ;  yet  let  him  reflect  that  a  life-tim« 
is  requisite  to  determine  many  things  by  mere  expe- 
rience in  the  business ;  and  that  by  adopting  the  rules 
here  laid  down,  much  time  may  be  saved  and  great  waste 
prevented,  because  here  will  be  summed  up  the  expe- 
rience of  practical  farmers  for  many  ages. 

The  great  Agriculturist,  Arthur  Young  &ays,  "  No  one 
of  common  sense  can  deny  the  vast  advantage  of  judi- 
cious collections.  I  know  not  for  instance  of  a  more  use- 
ful work  than  a  collection  of  all  the  truly  valuable  in 
every  book  of  husbandry ;  that  the  benefit  of  reading 
might  be  reduced  to  the  labour  of  a  few  months,  instead 
of  twice  as  many  years." 

Agriculture  has  been  justly  termed  the  most  essential 
of  all  arts.  In  every  region  of  the  habitable  globe, 
where  the  least  appearance  of  civilization  exists,  it  ne- 
cessarily  occupies  a  great  portion  of  the  human  race  ; 
and  many  learned  men  have  made  it  their  chief  study 
and  employment,  justly  deeming  it  the  original  and  gen- 


Tin.  ,  jii^TRODrctiorT'; 

uine  source  of  the  strength,  riches,  and  prosperfty  of  \s 
nation ;  because  to  it  we  are  indebted  for  food,  clothing*, 
the  most  necessary  accommodations,  and  the  materials 
of  all  the  arts  and  comforts  of  life. 

Agriculture  corresponds  to  that  degree  of  exercise,- 
says  Lord  Karnes,  which  is  the  best  preservative  of 
health.  It  requires  no  hurtful  fatigue,  on  the  one  hand, 
nor  indulges,  on  the  other,  indolence,  still  more  hurtful. 
But  what  I  chiefly  insist  on  is,  that  laying  aside  irregu- 
lar appetites  and  ambitious  views,  agriculture  is  of  all  oc- 
cupations the  most  consonant  to  our  nature,  and  the  most 
productive  of  contentment,  the  sweetest  sort  of  happi- 
ness. It  is  of  all  employments  the  best  calculated  to 
raise  our  contemplations  to  the  all-wise  ruler  of  the  uni- 
Terse,  and  to  teach  us  our  dependence  on  him,  from  day 
to  day,  from  whose  liberal  munificence  we  derive  all 
our  enjoyments. 

Agriculture  is  undoubtedly  a  healthy  employment. — 
Among  the  pro-requisites  to  good  health  and  longevity, 
may  be  numbered  a  suitable  degree  of  exercise  of  body 
and  mind,  a  steady  and  equal  progress  through  life, 
never  allowing  our  passions  to  triumph  over  our  reason ; 
temperance  in  eating  and  drmking,  cleanliness,  timely 
and  regular  sleep,  and  pure  air.  The  farmers  dissolu- 
tion is  often  occasioned  by  taking  a  severe  cold,  most 
commonly  through  great  imprudence.  la  many  instan- 
ces from  standing  still  or  sitting  down  after  violent  ex- 
ercise without  putting  on  his  clothes,  or  by  an  immode- 
rate use  of  cold  drink  when  very  warm.  If  they  would 
learn  more  prudence  in  these  respects,  and  abstain  from. 
the  use  of  spirituous  liquors  and  other  hurtful  practices,^ 
the  cultivators  of  the  ground  would  seldom  require  the 
aid  of  physicians  or  apothecaries. 

"  There  may  be  some  who,  for  want  ofdue  reflection 
or  competent  knowledge  of  the  history  of  AgriGulture^ 


INTRODVCTIOl^i-  ITSi* 

may  consider  it  as  a  heaven-taught  art;  as  one  for 
wliich  no  talent  is  required,  and  no  knowledge  beyond 
the  meanest  practical  education  requisite.  To  such  per- 
sons we  would  remark,  that  although  it  has  been  the 
oldest  of  all  the  arts,  and  therefore  it  is  more  difficult 
to  trace  its  history  than  that  of  any  other,  yet  if  we  ex- 
amine the  implements  of  Agriculture,  and  the  various 
modes  of  cultivation,  we  shall  be  convinced  that  it  owes 
as  much  to  genius  and  invention,  and  a  spirit  of  improve- 
ment, as  any  other." 

''  In  a  philosophic  view,.  Agriculture  is  great  and  ex- 
tensive. In  a  political  view,  it  is  important,  and  per- 
haps the  only  firm  and  stable  foundation  of  greatness. — 
As  a  profession,  it  strengthens  the  mind,  without  ener- 
vating the  body.  In  morals,  it  tends  to  increase  virtue, 
without  introducing  vice.  In  religion,  it  naturally  in- 
spires piety,  devotion,  and  a  dependence  on  providence, 
without  a  tincture  of  infidelity.  It  is  a  rational  and 
agreeable  amusement  to  the  man  of  leisure,  and  abound- 
less  source  of  contemplation  and  activity  to  the  indust- 
trious." 

Should  the  present  work,  the  result  of  considerable 
study  and  careful  observation,  contribute  to  the  promo- 
tion of  that  art,  which  is  the  basis  of  all  the  others,  the 
editors  will  be  highly  gratified.  They  feel  unwilling  to 
close  this  introductory  part  without  briefly  contrasting 
the  happy  state  of  American  farmers,  with  the  deplora- 
ble condition  of  very  many  cultivators  in  Europe. 

France,  the  fairest  portion  of  Europe  ;  renowned  for 
its  fertility  of  soil,  and  the  miid  temperature  of  its  sea- 
sons :  France,  the  country  of  La  Fayette,  was  cultivat- 
ed till  lately  by  a  wretched  peasantry,  who  were  but  one 
remove  from  the  oppressed  Serfs  (slaves)  of  the  semi- 
barbarian  nobles  of  the  north.*  Such  was  the  state  of 
that  peasantry,  that  the  amiable  Saint  Pierre.querulous- 

2* 


X.  INTRODUCTION^ 

ly  asked,  What  it  availed  them  to  hare  raised  wheatj 
affr»rJing  the  finest  flour,  if  they  must  live  on  bran^^- 
Thrice  and  four  times  happy  American  cultivators  ;—- 
yes,  too  happy,  did  you  but  know  your  happiness  !— * 
Lords  of  the  soil  you  cultivate,  and  sharing  in  all  the  lux- 
uries of  nature.  Be  assured,  there  is  no  occupation  pur- 
sued on  this  globe,  superior  to  yours.  ^Venerate,  then, 
the  plough,  the  hoe,  the  sickle,  and  all  the  implements 
of  husbandry  :  And,  should  the  soil  prove  hard,  yet  joxt 
may  say  ; 

"  Tho^  rucle,  thon  art  still  dear  to  me. 
Land  of  my  fathers  i  Tkou  art  free  !^ 
And  bless  the  bard  that  strikes  to  thee 
The  eiinobling  harp  of  liberty  .'*' 
*  The  condition  of  the  boors  is,  in  general  depIora~ 
bly  wretched.  The  only  property  which  their  lords  al- 
low them  to  possess,  is  the  food  whish  they  themselves 
cannot,  or  will  not  eat,  the  bark  of  trees,  chaff  and  oth- 
er refuse  ;  grass,  water,,  and  fish  oil.  If  by  any  means 
they  acquire  any  portion  of  wealthy  it  becomes  a  very 
dangerous  possession,  and  when  discovered,  is  invariably 
seized  by  their  tyrannical  lords. — "  It  is  thus,"  says  Dr. 
Clarke,  "  we  behold  the  subjects  of  a  vast  empire  strip- 
ped of  all  they  possess,  existing  in  the  most  abject  ser- 
vitude ;  victims  of  tyranny  and  torture,  of  sorrow  and 
poverty,  of  sickness  and  famine."  Traversing  the  pro- 
vinces of  Muscovy,"  he  continue?,  "  the  land  appears  as 
the  garden  of  Eden,  a  fine  soil,  covered  with  corn,  and 
apparen.ly  smiling  in  plenty.  Enter  the  cottage  of  the 
poor  labourer,  surrounded  by  all  these  riches,  and  yon 
find  him  dying  of  hunger,  or  pining  from  bad  food,  ancl 
in  want  of  the  common  necessaries  of  life.  Extensive 
pastures,  covered  with  cattle,  afford  no  milk  to  him.— 
>n  autumn,  the  harvest-field  yields  no  bread  for  his 
thiidren.     The  lord  claims  all  the  produce.     Can  there 


INTRODUCTIONS 


&. 


be  a  more  affecting  sight  than  a  Russian  family,  having^ 
got  in  an  abundant  harvest,  in  want  of  the  common 
stores  to  supply  and  support  them,  through  the  rigoum 
of  their  long  and  inclement  winter  J" 


IMPORTANCE   OF   MAKING   EXPtRIMEN^   t^ 

AGRICULTURE, 


"  The  task  of  making  improvement  on  the  earthy  is  much 
more  delightful  to  an  undebauched  mind^  than  all  the  vain 
glory  which  can  be  acquired  from  ravaging  it  by  the  mosi 
uninterrupted  career  of  con^^esi,''— ^Washington.- 

AT  this  period,  when  the  prejudices  which  have  long 
existed  unfavorable  to  the  improvement  of  Agriculturev 
have  been  In  a  considerable  degree  scattered,  by  the 
beams  of  truth  and  science,  little  need  be  said  perhaps 
npon  the  importance  of  instituting  various  experiments 
for  the  further  advancement  of  the  art.  Men  are  not 
habitually  thoughtful  and  reflecting  ;  but  find  it  much 
easier  to  receive  the  creeds  of  those  who  have  gone  be- 
fore them  as  orthodox,  than  to  examine  for  them- 
selves and  discover  whether  those  doctrines  are 
in  consistency  with  the  dictates  of  reason  and  sound" 
policy.  So  it  is  in  Agriculture — the  mode  adopt- 
ed by  the  father  is  almost  invariably  pursued  by 
the  son  ;  and  the  clearest  dictates  of  reason  are  far  less 
persuasive  than  the  example  of  ancestors — like  the  ma» 
who  in  carrying  hisgrain  upon  the  horse,  would  ballance 
it  on  the  one  side  with  a  stone,  because  his  father  and 
his  grndfather  had  done  so  before  him  ;  whenever  the 
glimmerings  of  reason,  if  once  pernii4.ted  to  dawn  upor^ 


t4  EXPElilMENTS  IN 

his  mind,  would  have  taught  him  the  folly  and  incon-' 
venience  of  the  custom,  So  it  is  that  our  farmers  have 
been  inclined  to  pursue  the  same  beaten  track,  not  dar- 
ing to  var}^  from  the  established  mode,  which  for  a  long 
time  presented  an  effectual  barrier  to  eveiy  species  of 
improvement. 

But  happily  this  charm  is  now  broken ;  arid  Agriculture' 
is  considered  susceptible  of  improvement,  like  philosophy,- 
from  experiment.  Much  talent,  learning  and  science  are 
devoted  to  its  cause ;  the  happy  effects  of  which  begin 
to  appear  in  many  parts  of  our  country  ;  yet  it  is  to  be 
lamented  that  so  few  experiments  have  been  made,  (Cal- 
culated to  establish  useful  and  permanent  systems  of 
husbandry,  suited  to  our  peculiar  climate  and  soil. 

The  true  source  of  agricultural  knowledge,  is  to  be 
found  in  repeated  experiments.  These  are  to  be  made 
by  ourselves  or  neighbors,  and  verbally  communicated ; 
or  by  persons  at  greater  distances,  and  chiefly  commu^ 
nicated  by  books. 

By  our  own  experiments  we  receive  instruction  from 
the  hands  of  nature  herself — by  books  we  receive  it 
from  other  men  ;  the  one  is  more  certain  and  applica- 
ble to  our  own  affairs,  the  other  more  varied,  and  cop- 
ious and  from  the  principles  of  science  unfolded,  enlight- 
ening. Neither  of  them  ought  to  be  neglected.—^ 
The  examination  of  books' ;  and  a  free  interchange  of 
ideas  on  agricultural  improvements,  will  enable  us  to 
avail  ourselves  of  the  knowledge  to  be  derived  from 
our  experiments.  Information  thus  acquired  is  always 
applicable  to  our  own  business,  it  is  engraven  on  our 
minds,  and  it  can  never  mislead !  its  very  acquisition  is 
an  amusement,  and  its  communication  a  rational  pleas- 
ure. For  far  superior  to  that  mean  jealousy  which  lit- 
tle miiids  are  apt  to  entertain  on  their  disGoveriesj  the, 


AGRICVLTURS.  1 5 

jjublic  spiri+ed  individual  nobly  calls  forth  every  assist- 
ant, and  invites  his  countrymen  to  become  his  rivals  in 
promoting'  the  general  welfare  of  mankind.  But  before 
experiments  can  be  useful,  they  must  be  made  with 
fikiil  and  reported  with  fidelity,  stating  the  mode  pursu- 
ed, and  the  difficulties  encountered. 

It  has  been  objected  to  those  who  advocate  the 
■ca^-se  of  improved  tarming,  that  they  are  too  much  at- 
tached to  theory,  and  too  little  acquaiatod  with  prac- 
tice ;  and  it  has  often  been  deemed  sufficient  to  ccndem.n 
any  thing  ©ut  of  the  common  course  to  recommend  it  as 
described  in  a  printed  book.  Some  of  our  farmers  be- 
-lieve,  that  in  adopting  new  inventions,  we  insult  the 
memory  of  those  who  have  gone  before  us,  who,  ac- 
cording to  their  way  of  reasoning,  have  transmitted  to 
us  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  known  in  cultivating  lands ! 
Others  agree  that  the  late  discoveries  are  useful  to  par- 
ticular countries,  but  altogether  repugnant  to  the  na- 
ture of  our  soil !  There  are  others,  who  allow  all 
these  improvements  to  have  advantages  in  particular  re- 
spects ;  but  assert,  that  their  superiority  over  the  vul- 
-gar  course  of  husbandry  is  so  doubtful,  tiiey  must,  at 
least,  be  considered  of  small  utility  !  Prejudices  of  this 
kind  are  however  passing  away.  He  who  endeavours 
to  add  to  the  fund  of  useful  knowledge  deserves  cur 
thanks,  however  circumscribed  his  researches  may  be. 

We  admit  that  there  are  many  theories,  the  result 
of  experiments,  the  adoption  of  which  cannot  be  reconi- 
mended  generally ;  yet  the  experiments  of  enthusiasts, 
or  mere  theorists,  are  often  ibund  valuable,  or  serve  as 
friendly  beacons  tp  warn  us  of  our  danger.  That  which 
is  certainly  most  desirable  however,  is  an  union  of  the- 
ory and  practice. 

It  is  the  practical  farmer  that  we   would   now  invite 
^more  particularly  to  come  forward ;  we  are  desirous  of 


1^  IXPERTKEirrS  IN 

seeing  him  engaged  in  those  experiments  on  which  im- 
|)ortant  consequences  depend.  General  reasoning  and 
remarks  may  be  of  some  use  in  many  points,  that  ex- 
periments do  not  reach  ;  but  in  general  all  the  reason- 
ing upon  earth,  without  them,  would  be  of  no  avail ; — 
and  they,  in  a  certain  variety,  are  sufficient  to  give  the 
force  of  ahsolule  fact  to  every  noint. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  enlightened  men  who  prac- 
.tice  agriculture,  and  of  authors  who  practice  and  write 
on  it,  to  help  forward  the  age;  to  try  experiments  oq 
things  newly  introduced,  and  if  they  are  found  good,  to 
spread  the  knowledge  of  them  as  much  as  possible  ;  to 
endeavour  to  arouse  the  attention  of  the  vast  body  of 
farmers.  To  omit  this  either  in  practice  or  in  wriiing, 
Is  to  reduce  them.selves  to  the  level  of  those  whom  they 
ought  to  instruct ;  and  to  submit  to  that  ignorance  anl 
backwardness,  which  cloud  a  country  in  an  enlightened 
nge,  with  the  darkness  of  a  preceding  centurj^  It  is 
Ihe  business  of  superior  minds,  in  every  branch  of  phi- 
losophy', to  start  beyond  the  age,  and  shine  forth  to  dis- 
sipate ihe  night  that  involves  them. 

Let  not  those  enterprising  enquirers  who  aspire  at 
excellence,  be  deterred  by  the  ridicule  that  not  unfre- 
quently  accompanies  them  in  their  attempts,  or,  intimi- 
dated by  the  apprehensions  of  ruin.  Let  them  only  be 
careful  that  their  experiments  be  made  after  due  con- 
sideration, and  commensurate  with  their  means,  and 
there  is  httle  danger,  but  that  pleasure,  and  in  most  in- 
stances, profit,  will  follow  their  undertakings.  New 
practices  in  husbandry  are  often  attempted  by  persons 
not  bred  to  that  occupation,  and  these  for  want  of  prac- 
tical skill,  may  often  full  in  the  execution  ;  and  whea 
successful,  the  success  is  ascribed  to  a  liberal  expendi- 
ture of  money,  beyond  the  ability  of  the  mere  farmer, 
jjut  what  risk  v/ill  attend  experiments  made  by  farmers 


AGRICULTURE.  1 1 

tliemseiveg,  t-o  test  the  value  of  these  novelties  ?  Each 
one  for  himself  can  try  them,  on  as  small  a  scale  as 
xnay  suit  his  convenience,  before  he  enters  more  large- 
ly into  any  article  of  cultivation,  and  at  a  very  small 
expence  of  time  and  money.  A  small  field,  of  a  soil 
similar  to  that  of  his  farm  in  general,  appropriated  to  ex- 
periments would  be  the  most  proper.  The  introduc- 
tion of  improvements  would  be  facilitated,  if  the  money 
expended,  and  the  quantity  of  labour  bestowed  upon 
them  were  always  accurately  stated,  in  all  communica- 
tions made  to-  the  public. 

There  is  no  way  of  making  improvements  in  farming, 
but  by  experiments.  If  the  farmer  is  informed  of,  or 
has  conceived,  a  different  a,nd  better  method  of  culture, 
or  management,  in  any  branch  of  his  farming,  he  is  to 
test  the  goodness  of  that  method  by  experiments  ;  and, 
if  these  prove  successful,  he  may  congratulate  himself, 
on  having  performed  an  act  which  is  serviceable  to  his 
country  and  honorable  to  himself. 

Having  urged  the  utility  and  even  necessity  of  accu- 
rate experiments,  w'e  will  enumerate  a  few  of  the  more 
important  objects,  on  which  those  experiments  ought  to 
be  tried. 

The  proper  selection  of  seeds  is  of  vast  importance. 
Experiments  should  be  made  to  ascertain  what  kinds  are 
the  best  of  all  the  grains,  grasses,  fcc.and  how  far  they 
are  susceptible  of  improvement.  Next  what  quantities 
of  these  ought  to  be  sown  or  planted  on  an  acre,  and, 
in  what  manner,  whether  in  drills,  in  hills,  or  broad 
cast.  Careful  experiments  should  be  made  on  the  all 
important  article  of  manure.  We  ought,  without  loss 
of  time,  to  ascertain  how  far  lime,  plaister,  and  ashes 
may  be  used  to  advantage ;  and  in  what  manner  the 
good  manure  may  be  best  increased  and  applied ;  how 
many  crops  will  each  sort  benefit,  &;c.  The  best  sea- 
3 


18  EXPERIMENTS  &C. 

son  for  plougbin^  and  sowing-rwhat  depths  and  what 
number  of  ploughings — what  mode,  whether  level  or 
ridge,  the  most  advisable  mode  of  tilling  the  ground,  so 
as  best  to  ensure  the  three  great  objects  of  tillage, 
which  are  the  production  of  useful  grains,  roots,  and 
grasses.  Experiments  should  be  made  to  ascertain  wiiat 
kind  of  s  il  is  best  adopted  to  each  particular  sort  of  graiQ 
&c  ;  whether  any,  and  what  new  grains,  roots  or  grasses 
might  be  advantageously  introduced;  the  inost  ethcient 
mode  of  destroying  or  guarding  against  the  ravages  of 
noxious  insects  ;  the  stocking  farms  with  the  most  ap- 
proved breeds  of  domestic  animals  ;  the  cure  and  preven- 
tion of  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  subject;  the  kind 
of  food  most  proper  for  them,  and  the  best  mode  of  pre- 
paring it,  &.O. 

These  suggestions  might  be  multiplied  to  almost  any 
extent,  but  the  few  here  mentioned  are  sufficient  to 
show  that  experimeatci  agriculture  is  yet  on  a  wavering 
-^•'^^:l"^,  and  considerable  time  will  be  required  to  estab- 
lish by  experiment,  some  important  points  in  the  science. 

The  entertainment  which  m.ay  be  received,  from  an 
enquiry  into  ail  the  powers  and  operations  of  nature 
wherein  husbandry  is  conceived,  is  one  of  the  most  noble 
that  can  be  proposed  to  the  mind  of  man.  The  subject 
is  so  vast  it  can  never  be  exhausted;  could  he  Uve.and 
spend  ages  in  agriculture,  he  might  still  go  on  in  his  re- 
searches,  and  still  make  fresh  discoveries  that  would 
excite  afresh  his  admiration  of  the  wonderful  works  of 
God. 


Necessity  of  consulting  boors. 

It  is  a  saying  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  Bacon, 
that  "  knowledge  is  power."  Of  all  the  various  sorts 
of  power  enumerated  by  that  great  philosopher  says 
Sinclair,  this  seems  by  far  the  most  important.  What 
g^ives  one  man  any  real  superiority  over  another,  but 
the  knowledge  he|possesses  ?  What  enables  some  indi- 
viduals to  produce  abundant  harvests, — to  carry  on  a 
prosperous  commerce, — to  establish  successful  manufac- 
tures,— to  excel  in  mechanism,  or  any  other  useful  art, 
but  the  acquisition,  and  judicious  apphcation  of  that 
knowledge  in  which  others  are  deficient  ? 

That  the  power  and  prosperity  of  a  countr}'',  depend 
6n  the  diuusion  of  useful  knowledge,  can  hardly  be 
questioned ;  and  there  is  probably  no  art,  in  which  a  va- 
riety of  knowledge  is  of  more  essential  importance,  than 
in  that  of  agriculture.  The  extent  of  information  ne- 
cessary to  bring  it  to  any  thing  like  perfection,  is  far 
greater  than  is  generally  supposed.  To  preserve  the 
fertility  of  the  soil — to  free  it  from  superfluous  mois- 
ture— to  cultivate  it  to  the  greatest  advantage — to  raise 
its  productions  at  the  least  expence — to  procure  the 
best  instruments  of  husbandry — to  select  the  stock  like- 
ly to  be  the  most  profitable— ^to  feed  them  in  the  most 
judicious  manner— ;to  secure  the  harvest,  even  in  the 
most  unpropitious  seasons — to  separate  the  grain  from  the 
straw  with  economy  and  success — and  to  perform  all  the 
other  operations  of  agriculture  in  the  most  judicious 
mode,  require  a  greater  extent,  and  variety  of  knowl- 
edge, than  might  at  first  view,  be  judged  requisite. 

It  is  not  many  years,  since  chemistry  was  brought  to 
the  aid  of  Agriculture,  and  this  will  eventually  prove 
one  of  its  principal  pillars.    Systematic  rotations  of  crops 


20  NECESSITY    OF    CONSULTING    BOOKS. 

- — improvements  in  breeding  cattle — the  use  of  plaister 
of  Paris — soiling  of  cattle — the  extensive  field  culture  of 
roots,  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  stock — artificial  grasses, 
&c.  are  of  modern  date,  and  have  brought  about  great 
revolutions  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  farming.  The 
practical  farmer,  especially  in  the  older  and  more  pop- 
ulous parts  of  the  country,  must  understand,  and  in  some 
degree  practice  these  improvements,  or  he  will  not  only 
neglect  to  make  the  most  of  his  means,  but  probably 
make  so  many  backward  and  down-hill  movements  in 
the  journey  of  life,  that  ten  chances  to  one,  old  age 
will  find  him  in  the  vale  of  poverty.  The  cultivator 
who  does  not  keep  pace  with  his  neighbours,  as  regards 
agricultural  improvement  and  information,  will  soon  find 
himself  the  poorer,  in  consequence  of  the  prosperity  that 
surrounds  him.  He  will  be  like  a  stinted  oak  in  the  for- 
est, which  is  deprived  of  light  and  air  by  his  more  tow- 
ering  neighbours. 

There  are  farmers  who  feel  unwilling  to  consult  agri- 
cultural books  of  any  description  for  information,  be- 
cause disappointment  has  attended  some  attempt  they 
have  made  to  follow  the  directions  contained  in  them. 
Let  such  men  recollect  that  the  editors  of  periodical 
and  other  publications,  do  not  consider  themselves  res- 
ponsible for  the  correctness  of  the  statements,  or 
the  soundness  of  the  theories  of  the  various  writers, 
whose  essays  they  publish.  Their  rule  is  to  admit  ev- 
ery essay,  which  appears  to  contain  any  new  hint.  It 
is  impossible  for  them  to  judge  of  the  correctness  in 
point  of/acf,  of  any  statement,  made  by  a  correspond- 
ent. They  believe  that  a  free  and  unreserved  commu- 
nication of  all  experiments,  whether  the  conclusion  drawn 
from  them  are  erronious,  or  not,  is  of  use.  The  cautious 
farmer,  if  he  is  struck  with  their  novelty,  may  try  them 
for  himself.     If  they   are  found  to  fail,  he  will    not  re- 


NECESSITY    OP    CONSULTING   BOOKS,  21 

peat  the  experiment,  l)uthe  will  be  very  careful  to  in- 
quire whether  he  has  faithfully  followed  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  author.  Whether  his  soil  was  the  same  as 
that  in  which  the  first  experiment  was  made,  and  wheth- 
er he  has  taken  the  same  pains  to  produce  the  proposed 
result. 

We  believe  that  thirty  years  since,  it  would  have  been, 
believed  impossible  to  raise  the  great  crops  of  corn  and 
roots  which:  within  a  few  3  ei^.rs,  individuals  in  all  parts 
of  our  country  have  ::aoCeeded  in  raising-.  Hov/  has 
this  been  effected  but  by  circulating  accounts  of  individ- 
ual success  ? 

It  is  well  known  that  there  is  scarcely  any  part  of 
the  country  in  which  there  may  not  be  found  persons 
engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  anxious  of  improve- 
ment, and  capable  of  every  rational  inquiry.  At  the 
same  time  it  musl  bs  admitted,. that  there  are  too  many 
still  labouring  under  the  most  obstina-te  prejudice  against 
what  they  call  hook-farmings  conceiving  that  they  know 
as  much  of  farming  as  is  necessary,  an  opmion  pregnant 
with  much  self-sufficiency,,  and  exposing  those  who  en- 
tertain it  to  the  greatest  possible  disadvantage. 

Oui  farmers  have  not  advanced  in.  any  degree  in  pro- 
portioii,  either  to  their  natural  intellig^ence,  or  the  pro- 
gress of  the  arts  in  other  countries.  They  pay  but  lit- 
tle attention  to  the  rotation  of  crops  ;  their  orcheirds  are 
as  neglected  aff  their  woodlands  ;  and  after  you  get  at 
a  distance'from  considerable  towns ,  horticulture  is  scarce- 
ly known.  New-England  proba'oly  can  furnish  bread 
stuff  for  the  whole  of  the  United  Siates,  and  is  depend- 
ent on  the  southern  states  for  flour  I 

Every  farmer,  who  has  natural  understanding,  ought 
to  be  a  well  informed  man,  in  reading  and  thinking,  in 
theory  and  practrce.  But  some  flirmerr?  tr^ll  us  that  they 
never    knew  any  good   result    from  what    they  called 

3* 


^2  NECESSITY    OF    CONSULTING    BOOKS. 

hook-farming.  That  gentlemen  farmers  .^  who  know  noth* 
ing  about  farming  but  what  they  get  out  of  the  libra- 
ries, spend  a  great  deal,  but  never  make  any  profit  by 
their  agricultural  projects,  and  schemes  of  domestio 
economy.  It  is,  however,  obvious  to  every  person  ca- 
pable of  reflection,  that  written  documents  must  neces- 
sarily surpass  in  every  respect  those  of  the  most  reten- 
tive memor}^,  the  experience  of  no  simple  individual 
being  capable  of  comprising  all  that  is  or  ought  to  be 
known. 

That  knowledge,  which  gives  man  his  supremacy  o- 
Tcr  the  beasts  of  the  field,  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and 
which  bestows  on  individuals  among  mankind  a  pre-em- 
inence much  more   substantial   and  less   invidious  than 
birth,  wealth,  title,  or  popular  applause,  can  be  acquired 
only  by  three  modes,  viz  :  observation^  conversation  and 
■yeadincr.     Observation  and  conversation  are  very  impor- 
lant  inlets   to  ideas,   and   reading  furnishes   perhaps,  as 
great  a  quantity  of  useful  materials  for  the  mind   to  op- 
orate  upon   as  either  of  them.     Book.hiozi:leclge  then  is 
'power^    and  other  things    being  equal,  the  farmer  who 
obtains  information  from  books,  or  other  printed  works, 
and  has   strength  of  mind,  and  good  sense   sufficient  to 
make  a    proper  use  of  it,  has  the    advantage   over  his 
iinlettered  neighbour,  who  despises  book-f\irming.    Be- 
5-ldes  what  is  this  book-knowledge,  which   some    honest 
cultivators  think  is  so  much  to  be  dreaded  ?     It  is  noth- 
ing more  than  the  result  of  observation,  or  experience, 
Vv'hich  after  having  passed   through  the  channel  of  con- 
versation, is  at    length  reduced    to  writing,  sent  to  the 
press,  and  the  moment  it  is  printed,  becomes,  accord- 
ins:  to  ^^lifi  objectors  to    whom  we  allude,  hook  fanning  ; 
imd  therefore  is  to  be  considered  as  something  very  ru- 
inous to  the  practical  husbandman  !     Thus,  we  will  sup- 
pose that  A  has  found   out  a  safe  and  easy  cure  for  the 


9IZEJ   OF    FARMS,  ,         SB"- 

T)otts  in  horses,  or  a  method  by  which  he  can  raisfc 
double  the  usual  quantity  of  Indian  corn  on  an  acre  ;  A 
communicates  his  discovery  or  improvement  to  B,  his 
neighbour,  who,  although  he  has  a  great  aversion  to 
book-farming,  makes  use  of  and  derives  great  advantages 
from  it  on  the  strength  of  A's  oral  testimony.  But  A 
isendsan  account  of  his  discoveries  and  processes  to  the 
printer,  audit  is  published  in  some  periodical  paper,  and 
perhaps  finds  its  way  into  some  volume  written  on  agri- 
cultural subjects.  The  whole  thus  becomes  book-far- 
ming, and  not  worthy  the  attention  of  real,  genuine, 
practical  farniers. 

But  these  absurdities  are  fast  yielding  to  reason  and 
the  lights  of  science.  The  time  has  arrived  in  Europe, 
and  is  fast  approaching  in  America,  in  which  books  and 
the  information  which  they  contain,  will  be  considered 
as  necessary  to  make  a  man  a  complete  farmer,  as  -a 
complete  physician,  lawyer,  or  divine. 


SIZE    OF    PARMS. 

The  size  of  farms  is  a  subject  on  which  much  has 
been  written,  and  respecting  which  a  great  diversity  of 
opinion  prevails.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  pre- 
cise or  universal  standard,  as  so  much  depends  upon  the 
nature  and  situation  of  the  country  ;  the  character,  skill, 
and  capital  of  the  farmer ;  and  a  variety  of  local  cir* 
cumstances. 

It  is  well  observed  in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
Repository,  that  on  this  topic,  perhaps  the  people  of  no 
country  are  so  little  practically  instructed  as  ours.  Tliis 
arises  from  the  condition  in  which  the  agricultural  in- 
tere-st  has  been  placed  from  the  time  of  tha  first  settle- 


24  SIZE    OF    FARMSv 

ment  ofoiir  country.  Our  ancestors  found  a  wnfTcrnegf 
unoccupied  except  by  sarages.  Those  who  fixed  them- 
seWes  in  the  country,  when  lands  were  cheap,  naturally 
estimated  their  riches  by  the  number,,  rather  than  by 
the  prodi^ctive  power  of  their  acras^  Two,  three,  or 
four  hundred  acres  were'  thought,  at  first,  to  be  suitable 
for  a  farm.  Afterwards,  when  population-  became  in- 
creased and  lands  divided,  the  idea-^  of  farmers  settled 
dov/n  to  the  opinion,  that  from  80  to  1 50  acres,  was 
sufficient  for  the  independent  support  of  a  family.  Up- 
on less  than  80  acres,  though  a  mati  might  find  ways 
and  means  to  live,  yet  it  was  thought  he  could  not  ex- 
pect greatly  to  thrive.  Accordingly  tiie  fii-st  effect  of 
thriving  among  men  of  that  size  of  farms,  was  generally 
evidenced  by  the  purchase  of  more  land.  Often  these  pur- 
chases were  made  at  the  risk  of  embarrassment  by  debt 
and  almost  always  to  the  real  injury  of  such  farmers, 
whose  surplus  capital,  or  even  their  borrowed  capital, 
would  bavebeen  generally  much  better  employed,  in 
improving  the  lands  they  possessed,  rather  than  in  the 
purchase  of  more  acres- 

With  respect  to  men  possessing  only  30  or  40  acres, 
they  scarcely  ventured  to  call  their  possessions  by  the 
name  of  afarm^  so  little  is  such  an  extent  of  land  in  gen- 
eral estimation,  entitled  to  the  use  of  that  term.  If 
they  attempted  to  live  and  bring  up  aiamily  upon  them, 
they  for  the  most  part  looked  to  other  employment  for 
their  support.  Turning  mechanics,  or  hireing  them- 
selves out  at  the  most  valuable  season  of  the  year,  to 
their  richer  neighbour*^  or  abandoning  their  own  farm 
to  tenants,  and  taking  leases  of  farms,  comprehending 
a  greater  extent  oflaad,  and  so  much  better  calculated 
to  give  that  ful';  cmplayment  to  their  activity,  which  to. 
their  mistaken  apprehension,  a  farm  of  30  or  40  acres 
did  not  auord.     Until  of  late  years,   opinions  and   con- 


SIZE    OF    FARMS;-  23 

liiicl  of  this  kind  were  almost  universal.  Even  at  this 
day  we  know  men,  active,  intelligent  and  industrious, 
possessed  of  this  extent  of  land,  who  are  labouring  for 
others,  or  taking  charge  of  their  neighbours  concerns, 
upon  the  avowed  reason,  that  they  cannot  support  their 
families  upon  30  or  40  acres  !  Yet  their  lands  are  good. 
The  owners  are  industrious,  intelligent,  possessed  of  a 
strong  desire  of  living  independent.  But  they  do  not 
realize  the  actual  efficiency  of  the  soil,  undoubtedly 
there  are  many  honorable^exceptions  to  the  observation 
we  are  about  to  make  ;  as  a  general  truth,  it  may  be 
asserted,   that  the  farmers  of  ^~EV^-ENGLAXD  are  yet  to 

LEARN  THE  IMMENSE  PRODUGTIAIE  POWER  OF  A  PERFECTLY  CUL- 
TIVATED ACRE.  Instead  of  seeking  riches  in  augmenting 
the  number  of  their  acres,  let  them  be  sought  in  better 
modes  of  husbandry.  As  a  general  truth,  we  believe  it 
may  be  asserted  that  every  farmer  in  New-England, 
possessed  of  100  acres  of  land,  might  divide  them 
fairly,  by  quantity  and  quality,  into  thirds,  and  by  a  suit- 
able cultivation,  make  either  third  more  productive  than 
his  whole  100  acres  are  at  present.  This  is  the  oper- 
ration,  at  which  those  interested  in  the  agriculture  of 
New-England,  ought  chiefly  to  aim — to  make  farmers 
realize  what  cultivation  can  effect,  and  to  teach  the 
modes,  by  which  the  productive  power  of  the  soil  can 
best  be  elicited. 

It  has  been  said,  that  the  man  who  makes  two  ears' 
of  corn,  or  two  blades  of  grass  grow  where  but  one 
grew  before,  is  one  of  the  greatest  benefactors  to  man- 
kind ;  and  that  the  man  who,  by  good  management, 
makes  one  acre  produce  as  much  as  two  did  before,  has 
added  another  and  better  acre  to  his  estate.  Mr.  Mad- 
ison illustrates  this  opinion  by  quoting  one  of  the  Ro- 
man writers  on  husbandry,  who  enforces  the  obligation 
to  improving  managementj  by   the  story   of  one  Paritli- 


^5  SJZE    OF    FARMS. 

US,  who  had  two  daughters  and  a  vineyard.  When  the 
eldest  was  married,  he  gave  her  a  third  part  of  the  via-' 
yard  ;  notwithstanding  which  he  obtained  from  two  thirds 
the  same  crop  as  from  the  whole.  When  the  other 
daughter  was  married,  he  portioned  her  with  half  of 
what  remained,  and  still  the  produce  of  his  vineyard 
was  undiminished.  This  story,  short  as  it  is,  contains  a- 
volume  of  instruction  !• 

The  farmer,  in  every  article  of  his  business,  should- 
consider  the  event  before  he  lixes  upon  the  means ;  and' 
always  have  the  end  in  his  eye  when  he  is  about  to 
make  a  beginning.  Every  consideration  that  can  have 
i-nfluence  on  a  man,  calls  on  him  to  be  cautious  in  not 
buying  too  much  land.  The  pernicious  practice  of  im- 
perfectly cultivating  a  great  deal  of  land,  at  much  la- 
bour, toil  and  expense,  without  order,  calculation,  or' 
method  ;  and  finally,  without  profit ;  instead  of  bestow- 
ing a  proper  degree  of  labour  upon  the  tillage  of  a  less 
quantity,  is  a  very  prevalent  fault.  What  makes  it  the 
more  to  be  regretted  is,  that  our  most  industrious,  en- 
terprizing,  and  meritorious  farmers  must  frequently  fall 
into  it.-  Instead  of  confining  their  labours  to  a  moderate 
extent  of  ground,  applying  to  it  all  their  manure  and 
physical  force,  blindly  bent  upon  realizing  the  greatest 
possible  profit,  they  diffuse  their  culture  over  so  large  a 
space,  as  to  render  it  in  a  great  degree  ineffactual,  and 
thus  defeat  the  very  object  they  have  in  view.  The 
misthiefs  arising  from  this  course  are  more  numerous 
than  wo  can  now  enumerate.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the 
drudgery  and  perplexity  of  farming  are  thereby  greatly 
increased ;  the  time  employed  in  carrying  every  thing 
to  and  Irom  its  dixstant  parts  is  much  greater  ;  the  crops 
are  more  liable  to  injury ;  the  quality,  and  we  believe 
we  may  add  (in  most  cases)  the  quantity  of  the  produce- 


SIZE   OF    FARMS.  ^7 

:5s  greatly  inferior  to  what  it  otherwise  would  be,  and 
the  land  is  exhausted. 

The  great  andgeiieral  anQbitiori  offiirm^rs  is  to  occu- 
py large  fvarms  ;  the  more  they  possess,  the  greater  con- 
sequence chey  think  themselves  of.  Distracted  with  a 
confused  multiplicity  of  labour,  the  augmentation  of  acres 
only  serves  to  increase  their  perplexity,  without  increa- 
sing their  wealth.  The  fertility  of  an  estate  is  always 
in  proportion  to  the  culture  bestowed,  for  if  a  man  doub- 
le his  number  of  acres,  and  em^uoy  only  the  same  num- 
ber of  hands,  and  the  same  cjUcUitity  of  manure,  as  when 
he  had  half  the  number,  that  estate  will  clear  less  than 
it  did  before  the  additional  purchase.  Thus  it  is  evident 
a  (firmer  may  have  too  much^rpund  as  well  as  too  much 
live  stock. 

For  our  conviction,  nothmg  more  is  required,  than  tp 
take  a  survey  of  an  overgrown  farm  badly  managed, 
where,  on  lands  which  have  all  advantages  of  situaiion, 
we  shall  see  their  crops  of  hay  and  corn  that  will  not 
produce  more  than  a  third  part  of  what  iands  of  the  same 
quality/  and  quantitj^  afford,  divided  into  equal  allotments, 
amongst  the  inhabitants  of  a  populous  village. 

Were  farmers  to  occupy  no  more  ground  than  they 
could  cultivate  in  a  masterly  manner,  there  would  not  be 
that  general  compla,int  of  scanty  crops,  or  of  the  land 
being  worn  out  ;  for  there  is  no  land  of  any  sort  what- 
ever; (which  has  a  sufficient  depth  of  mould  for  plough- 
ing) but  what  may  be  rendered  fertile  by  cuitivalion, 
and  the  applicationof  proper  manures  :  and  in  propor- 
tion to  their  different  degrees  of  natural  richness,  be 
managed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  luxuriant  crops: 
for  the  resources  of  good  husbandry  are  as  infinite,  as 
the  fruitfulnes  of  the  earth  is  inexhaustible,  when  it  is 
properly  cultivated.  By  bad  conduct  good  soils  often 
produce  but  very  scanty  crops ;   when  the  blame  is  totj 


S8  StZE    OF    FARMS, 

frequently  imputed  to  their  supposed  natural   poverty; 

It  may  be  said,  that  there  are  many  farmers  among 
«s,  who  are  poor  men,  with  a  farm  of  from  1  to  2C0  a- 
cres.  It  is  common  to  hear  husbandmen  complaining  of 
the  burden  of  pubiic  taxes,  and  that  these  eat  up  their 
profits,  but  were  the  soil  of  New-England  husbanded 
with  the  skill  and  care,  which  would  entitle  our  cuUi" 
vators  to  be  called  good  farmers,  we  should  hear  no 
complaint  of  taxes  in  this  favoured  country. 

In  conclusion  we  will  observe,  that  our  objections  to 
large  farms  are  principally  occasioned  by  observing  the 
inferior  managem_ent  which  they  generally  receive.  But 
if  farmers  in  all  cases  will  retain  a  sufficient  part  of 
their  capital  to  make  improvements  co-exensive  with 
their  landed  estates,  the  objections  are  at  once  remor 
yed. 

We  acknowledge  that  the  farmer  should  occupy  suf- 
ficient land  to  engage  his  time,  not  irregularly  and  occa- 
sionally, but  fully  and  completely,  by  which  means  his  at- 
tention is  not  distracted  from  this  important  employment 
to  others  which  would  interfere  with  it,  and  necessari- 
ly prevent  its  correct  and  profitable  management ;  and 
ihose  idle  habits,  connected  with  public  injury  and  in- 
dividual ruin,  are  effectually  precluded.  But  whatever 
this  quantity  of  land  may  be  thought  to  be,  differing 
certainly  in  relation  to  different  individuals,  the  impor- 
tance of  adequately  stocking  and  prepgiriug  what  is  ac- 
tually occupied  is  extreme.  To  unite  the  portion  of 
land  necessary  to  occupy  the  time  of  the  experienced 
farmer,  with  the  complete  means  of  its  fertitity  and  im- 
provement, alfords  the  most  auspicious  louudation  foy 
the  hope  of  success. 


XJT  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SOILS,  kt. 


The  whole  surface  of  the  earth  is  made  up  of  a  few 
finnple  ingredients.  With  regard  to  Agriculture  our  in- 
quiries are  bounded  to  tiie  soil  on  whieh  we  tread,  and 
to  the  substratum  which  supports  it.  These,  in  a  judi- 
cious system  of  farming,  are  objects  of  great  importance. 
The  obstacles,  which  baffle  the  hopes  of  improvement, 
are  just  as  likely  to  lie  in  the  subsoil,  which  is  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  ploughshare,  as  in  the  upper  surface  ;  be- 
cause when  the  former  is  close  or  extremely  retentive  of 
Dioisture,  the  expense  and  hazard  of  cultiva'iing  the  sur- 
face is  considerably  increased,  whilst  the  growth  of 
plants  cultivated  upon  it  is  much  abridged  and  impeded, 
particularly  in  adverse  seasons ;  and  for  this  reason, 
neither  of  them  ought  to  be  disregarded,  A  coat  j  of  stiff 
clay  has  been  rendered  productive,  by  the  mere  circum- 
stance of  resting  on  a  bed  of  sand,  or  a  rock  of  lime- 
stone.; and,  therefore,  every  cultivator,  who  wishes  to 
pursue  a  course  of  good  management,  shouUl  go  over 
all  his  tieids,  by  digging  pits  in  various  places  of  at  least 
eighteen  inches  down,  that  he  may  know  the  materials 
on  which  he  is  to  operate.  He  can  then  lay  his  plan 
with  greater  certainty  of  success,  and,  what  often  hap- 
pens, the  subsoil  may  furnish  him  with  the  means  by 
which  to  ameUorate  the  surface. 

The  earth  which  generally  presents  itself  first  to  the 
eye,  is  no  particular  kind  of  soil,  but,  usually  a  mixture 
of  the  soil  underneath,  with  every  adventitious  substance, 
either  purposely  brought  to,  or  accidentally  lodged  up- 
on it,  causing  it  in  many  places  to  increase  yearly  in 
depth.  It  has  pleased  the  creator  of  the  earth,  to  leave 
it  in  some  places  more  barren,  in  others  naturally  im- 
proved. We  are  to  uee  our  understanding  in  observing 
what  is  the  kind  of  that  natural  improvement;  and  our 
industry  in  imitating  the  processes  of  nnture. 

A  farmer,  should  be  well  actpjainted  with  the  soil  he 
has  to  cultivate,  previous  to  the  application  of  manure^ 
'Or  a  selection   of  crops:    because  what  would    be  good 


o9  SOl-LS. 

linsuandry  on  one  soil,  would  be  inexcusably  bad  oa  a 
different  one.  By  availing  liiniself  ofthe  qualities  it  pos- 
sesses, or  by  removing  its  delects,  his  prolits  are  much 
increased.  Indeed  such  is  the  importance  of  the  soil, 
and  the  necessity  of"  adapting  his  system  to  its  peculiar 
properties,  that  no  general  system  of  cultivation  can  be 
laid  down,  unless,  all  the  circumstances  regarding  it  be 
well  known. 

Perhaps  all  the  simple  soils  of  importance  that  are 
found  on  or  near  the  surface  ofthe  earth  in  this  country 
may  consist  of,  clay,  loam,  gravel,  and  saiul.  There  is 
not  one  of  these  earths,  in  its  unmixed  state,  that  is  so 
iriendly  to  the  growth  of  plants,  as  when  mixed  with 
some  other  sorts;  and  it  is  happy  for  us  that  nature  in 
most  places  has  blended  them.  Thus  we  have  sandy-, 
ioam,  gravelly-loam^  sandy-clay,  gravelly-clay,  Uq. 

CLAYEY    SOIL. 

A  clay  soil,  though  distinguished  by  the  colour  which 
jt  bears,  namely  black,  white,  j^ellow,  and  red,  differs 
i'rom  all  other  soils,  being  tough,  wet,  and  cold,  and 
consequently  requiring  a  good  deal  of  labour  from 
the  husbandman  before  it  can  be  sufficiently  pulverized, 
Ol  placed  in  a  tit  state  for  bearing  artificial  crops  of 
grain  or  grass.  Clay  soil  is  known  b}' these  properties: 
it  holds  water  like  a  dish:  it  feels  smooth  and  somewhat 
unctions  :  when  once  wetted  it  does  not  soon  dry.  In 
like  manner,  when  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  not  soon  wetted 
— if  we  except  the  varieties  which  have  a  thin  surface, 
and  are  the  worst  of  all  to  manage.  In  a  dry  summer, 
clay  cracks,  and  shows  a  surface  full  of  small  chinks.  If 
ploughed  in  a  wet  state,  it  sticks  to  the  plough  like 
mortar,  and  in  a  dry  summer  the  plough  turns  it  up  in 
iiTeat  clods.  Those  which  are  soft,  unctions,  and  easi- 
ly improved  are  valuable;  while  those  which  have  been 
deposited  by  the  sea,  or  muddy  streams,  are  still  more 
HO.  The  quality  of  a  clay  soil  can  generally  be  deter- 
mined from  its  natural  productions. 

A  clay  soil  must  always  be  made  rich  ;  if  poor,  it  is 
the  most  ungrateful  of  all  soils.  A  stiff  clay,  if  in  tillage, 
demands  opening  by  a  mixture  of  sand  and  dung.  Sand 
procured  at  the  beach  below  high  water  mark  (on  ac- 
count  cf  its   saltoess,)  is    best.     This  should  be  laid  2 


soits.  ol 

or  S  inches  thick,  to  break  the  cohesion  of  its  prirticles. 
But  marl,  marl  and  dung",  hme  and  ashes,  are  found  to 
give  such  soils  the  highest  degree  of  fertility.  Dnng 
will  not  be  sufficient,  unless  in  very  great  quantities. 
Dung  and  sand  is  better  than  dung  alone.  If  these  can- 
not be  had  in  sufficient  quantities,  burnt  cla}^  gravel  cr 
light  loam,  saw  du-^t,  chips,  straw,  stubble,  SAvamp  mud 
especially  with  ashes,  bark  of  trees,  rotten  wood,  or 
even  pebbles  will  be  useful.  When  once  made  rich 
they  are  extremely  valuable  ;  holding  the  manure  re- 
markably, A  small  quantity  of  horse,  sheep,  or  fowls 
dung  every  year,  will  prevent  them  from  ever  returning 
to  their  natural  cold  state. 

A  stiff  clay,  may  be  reduced  to  a  loam,  by  dressing  the 
surface  frequently  when  under  a  sv/ard,  or  covered  with 
herbage,  with  plaster,  sand,  and  rich  manures,  until  a 
rich  sward  is  obtained  ;  then  turn  in  the  sward  for  til- 
lage, and  lay  down  as  soon  as  pos'^ible,  and  dress  again 
as  before  ;  in  a  few  years,  the  stittest  clay  may  be  redu- 
eed  to  a  rich  clay  loam. 

It  is  thought  proper  once  in  6  or  8  years  to  sum- 
mer fallow  certain  kinds  of  clay,  even  when  in  a  clear 
state,  to  prevent  the  sourness  and  adhesion  from  wet 
ploughing,  which  exposure  to  the  sun  and  winds  in  sum- 
mer may  remove.  Clay  soils  should  be  ploughed  in  the' 
fall.  No  soil  requires  more  ploughings,  which  should 
be  given  it  when  neither  too  wot  nor  too  dry.  Fre- 
quent harrowings  are  also  necessary  to  mix  the  sandr; 
and  other  materials  well  with  thecla}^  la  England  it  iir? 
customary  to  plough  a  clay  soil  four  or  live  times. 

If  water  stands  on  such  land,  it  should  he  ploughed  in 
ridges  and  water-furrowed.  The  width  of  the  ridg- 
es should  depend  upon  the  degree  of  wetness.  Some- 
times drains  are  necessary.  The  value  of  clayey  soils, 
depends  upon  having  an  open  subsoil.  A  tough  clay  re- 
tains moisture  so  much  as  to  rot  the  seeds  and  roots  of 
plants. 

Clayey  soils,  though  they  are  supposed  to  contain  more 
of  the  food  of  plants  than  any  other,  are  apt  to  be  bar- 
ren in  a  natural  state.  When  not  too  wet,  and  proper- 
ly manured,  they  are  well  qualified  for  wheat,  oats,  bar- 
ley, beans,  peas,  flax,  clover,  and  other  artificial  grasses 
in  large  quantities.  But  they  must  not  be  fed  with  hcav> 


Oi  -  SOILS. 

cattle,  nor  fed  clo^e  by  any  creature  in  the  s]1rin^.  A 
clay  soil  receives  but  little  benefit  from  the  grass,  an  J 
when  once  suiTered  to  decline  it  is  difficult  to  restore  it. 

Fruit  trees  in  general  do  n;  t   flourish   well  in  a   clay* 
soil.     Roots  of  various  kinds  will  not  be  so  good.     The 
soil  does  not  suffer  the  roots  to  expand  in  quest  of  nour- 
'ishment. 

All  clay  soils  are  unpleasant  to  cultivate  with  the  hoe, 
though  such  a  crop  will  mix  the  sand  sooner  and  cheap- 
er than  any  other  methods  ;  and  those  which  are  culti- 
vated solely  ivith  the  plough,  require  more  skill,  and 
perhaps  double  the  expense  that  are  necef^sary  on  a 
light,  sandy  sell.  But  when  their  natural  toughness  is 
subdued  they  produce  abundantly  of  such  crops  as  are 
suited  to  them,  and  by  their  durability  will  repay  the 
kiboui'  bestowed. 

I.OAMY    SOIL. 

Loam  is  a  combination  of  clay  and  sand,  some  are  de- 
nonJnated  clayey,  from  the  excess  of  that  matter,  oth- 
ers open  and  light,  from  the  preponderance  of  sand.  In 
fiicA^  these  tvvo  original  ingredients  seem  capable  of  be- 
irig  ccmpounded  in  such  an  infinite  variety  of  ways,  as 
io  give  occa-ion  to  that  diversified  texture  of  soils  met 
with  in  all  countries  end  situations  ;  and  are  contrived 
to  counteract  each  other''s  qualities,  that  by  their  union, 
they  might  furnish  the  basis  of  that  beautiful  and  splen- 
did creation  of  (lov/ers  and  plants,  of  shrubs  and  trees, 
which  decorate  the  face  of  nature,  an<l  charm  us  by  a 
sweet  assemblage  of  all  that  is  gay  and  soft  in  colouring, 
with  all  that  is  elegant  and  attractive  in  design. 

Loams  being  a  medium  between  ligiit  and  stiiT  soils, 
are  the  most  desirable  of  all  others  to  cultivate.  They 
uro  ploughed  with  greater  facility  than  clay;  they  are 
peculiarly  well  adapted  for  the  convertible  husbandry; 
forthey  can  be  altered,  not  only  without  injury,  but  gen- 
erally with  benelit,  from  grass  to  tillage,  and  frcm  tillage 
to  grass. 

A  mellow,  rich,  crumbling  sandy  loam,  such  as  will 
admit  tillage  soon  afier  rain;  adhesive  enough  to  fear 
no  draught,  and  friable  enough  to  strain  off  superfluous 
moisture,  and  to  admit  the  librous  roots  of  plants  ;  if  in- 
cumbent on  a  sand    subsoil,  is  the  most  profitable  of  all 


SOIL*.  33 

soils,  being*  easily  managed,  and  raising  every  species 
of  crop  the  climate  will  admit  of.  Such  loams  as  are 
of  a  dark  red,  bright  chesnut,  or  hazely  colour,  if  dry 
and  mellow,  are  almost  invariably  excellent. 

Gravelly  loams,  when  warm,  sound,  and  dry,  or  free 
from  springs,  are  useful  soils,  more  especially  in  wet 
seasons. 

Stiff  loam,  is  naturally  a  poor,  cold  land.  On  walking 
over  it,  it  is  found  extremely  adhesive  in  wet  weather, 
and  it  requires  a  long  time  to  dr}^,  which  retards  plough- 
ing till  late  in  the  spring.  It  may  be  considered  as  for- 
ming a  medium  between  the  clods  of  clay  and  the  crum- 
bUngs  of  loam.  But  if  well  manured,  and  perhaps  drain- 
ed, it  will  become  very  productive. 

The  poorer  sorts  are  of  a  pale  yellow,  or  whitish 
colour,  and  require  abundance  of  manure  to  render  them 
fruitful. 

I^oams  of  every  kind,  whether  wet  or  dry,  are  natu- 
ral to  grass  :  Some,  however,  which  lie  Hat  become 
mossy,  when  they  have  been  a  few  years  in  pasture  or 
mowing,  and  require  to  be  ploughed  up;  unless  the 
moss  is  destroyed  by  scarifying  or  harrowing  and  top 
dressings.  Gypsum  will  sometimes  destroy  moss,  when 
strewed  on  a  dry  loam  in  the  spring. 

Loamy  lands  are  generally  too  cold,  and  often  too 
wet,  for  bearing  good  crops  of  Indian  corn;  unless  well 
warmed  and  mellowed,  by  suitable  manurings,  &c.  The 
dry,  redish,  dark  coloured  kinds,  and  those  which  have 
a  mixture  of  gravel  or  sand  are  most  suita])le  for  til- 
lage. 

There  are  writers  who  speak  of  a  soil  which  the}'  call 
black  or  garden  mould ;  but  this  being  a  species  of  artiiicial 
soil,  into  which  the  others  are  generally  brought  by  the  ef- 
fects of  manures,  the  decayed  remains  of  animals  and  vegi- 
tables  in  the  course  of  cultivation,  it  is  not  deemed  neces- 
sary to  speak  of  it  particularly.  All  good  mould  be- 
comes black  by  being  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air  a  year 
or  two.  Sir  H.  Davy  says,  a  black  soil  containing  much 
soft  vegitable  matter,  is  most  heated  by  the  sun  and  air; 
and  the  coloured  soils  exposed  under  equal  circumstan- 
ces to  sun,  acquire  a  much  higher  temperature  than  pale 
coloured  soils. 

4* 


3i  90ILg» 

GRAVELLY    SOIL. 

The  gravelly  soil  is  that  in  which  gravel  forms  the  lar-'' 
gest  part;  and  is  distinguished  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  earthy  matter  mixed  with  it;  as  clayey  gravel?, 
loamy  gravels,  or  sandy  gravels.  The  goodness  of  such 
soils  depends  upon  the  properties  of  the  gravelly  ingre- 
dients, and  the  proportion  of  earthy  matter  mixed  with 
them.  Those  are  best  which  partake  largely  of  slaty 
gravel.  A  coarse  sand,  and  a  fine  gravel  are  nearly  the 
same. 

Generally  speaking,  gravelly  soils  are  hard.  They 
are  more  porous  than  sandy  soils,  atid  may  properly  be 
called  hungry  soils^  especially  when  the  parts  of  which 
they  consist,  are  hard  in  substance  and  rounded  in  form. 
As  a  gravelly  soil  is  more  difficult  to  mellow  than  a  san- 
dy one,  the  former  is  the  least  valuable. 

The  open  porous  nature  of  gravelly  soils,  disposes 
them  to  admit  moisture  very  readily,  as  well  as  to  part 
with  it  v;rth  equal  facility  ;  which  causes  them  to  burn,  as 
it  is  termed,  in  dry  seasons,  but  have  the  property  of 
quickly  recovering  with  the  least  rain.  They  likewise 
have  the  property  of  being  more  early  than  the  more 
hea?y  sorts  of  land. 

Hard  gravels  must  be  improved  by  deep  ploughings  to 
enable  crops  to  withstand  drought ;  by  the  application  of 
clay,  marl,  peat,  or  other  earth;  by  the  mud  of  ponds 
or  rivers,  the  dung  of  cows  and  swine,  sea-weed,  stravf 
partly  rotted,  or  almost  any  substance  which  will  retain 
moisture  for  some  time;  various  animal  manures  in  the 
form  of  composts,  with  loam  and  ashes  ;  and  by  irrigation, 
■f  the  water  be  full  of  sediment.  The  appHcation  of 
iiuli  things  in  abundance,  will  meliorate  it  for  a  long 
time.  Such  soil  will  answer  for  crops  that  require  much 
heat,  as  Indian  corn,  beans,  peas,  potatoes,  &c.  With 
the  aid  of  i^ypsum  they  will  produce  good  crops  of  clo- 
ver, which  may  be  followed  by  rye. 

Sometimes  the  gravel  is  so  covered  with  stone,  that 
hardly  any  mould  can  be  seen.  Land  of  this  description 
»s  very  troublesome  to  work,  destructive  to  implements, 
fcc.  but  with  proper  management  can  be  rendered  pro- 
ductive. 

The  wet,  cold,  springy  gravel,  is  a  very  bad  soil ;  it 
may  be  improved  by  draining ;  by  frequent  returns  of 


SOILS.  ^%* 

grf^ss  crops  ;  and  by  repeated  applications  of  manure-. 
Some  gravels  and  sands  are  of  so  burning  a  nature,  that 
unless  the  season  is  wet  they  will   produce  but  little. 

But  as  the  soils  which  may  be  denominated  gravelly, 
are  some  more,  and  some  less,  so  ;  some  very  hard  and 
dry,  some  mellower,  and  not  so  much  affected  by 
drought:  we  will  not  pretend  to  designate  particularly 
the  most  profitable  uses  of  soils  of  this  kind,  as  much 
must  depend  on  their  particular  character,  and  as  those 
of  the  better  kind  may  often  be  found  very  good  for 
most  kinds  of  culture, 

SANDY  SOIL. 

A  sandy  soil  is  that  in  which  sand  predominates,  but 
which  contains  a  sufiiciency  of  other  earthy  matter,  to 
make  it  more  or  less  retentive  of  moisture,  and  thus  be- 
comes endued  with  various  degrees  of  feitliity.  Wher- 
ever unmixed  with  other  ingredients,  it  is  of  little  or 
no  value.  Very  light  sandy  soils  neither  ailord  sufh- 
cient  stabilit}'  to  plants,  nor  retain  moisture  enough  to 
convey  to  them  their  necessary  food. 

Where  a  sandy  soil  is  underlaid,  and  at  no  great  depth, 
with  what  is  usually  called  a  har-d  pan^  it  adds  greatly  to 
the  retentiveness  of  the  soil,  and  of  course  to  its  fer- 
tility. 

Sandy  soils  are  usually  of  a  yellowish,  or  redish  cast. 
Sometimes  they  are  greyish  ;  and  frequently  they  are 
dark  coloured.  The  latter  are  generally  the  most  fer- 
tile ;  the  yellowish  and  redish  are  commonly  the  least 
so ;  and  the  greyish  commonly  holds  a  middle  station 
between  the  two  extremes.  There  are  writers  howev- 
er, who  consider  a  red  sand  one  of  the  most  profitable. 

The  light,  open,  and  porous  texture  of  sandy  soils 
render  them  easily  cultivated,  so  that,  if  what  is  saved 
in  tillage  be  expended  in  additional  manurings,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  this  soil,  when  skilfully  managed,  will 
not  be  found  as  profitable  to  the  farmer  as  most  other 
lands  of  middling  quality. 

The  best  mode  of  improving  sandy  soils,  is,  by  a  mix- 
ture of  clay,  marl,  sea-shells,  peat,  vegitable  earth,  co\t 
dung,  awiue's  dung-,  or  mud  from  swamps  and  ponds.  A 
dressing  of  clay  two  or  three  inches  thick,  and  well  mix- 
ed, will  make  it  fruitful  for  many  years.     As  these  sub- 


SB'  SOIL9»- 

stances  are  liable  to  sink  into  such  soils  pretty  fast,  it  S^ 
necessary  to  plough  deep  to  return  them  to  the  surface-. 
It  is  worthy  ®f  remark,  that  the  substratum  of  a  sandy 
soil,  is  often  a  strong  clay ;  thus  nature  furnishes  the 
means  of  perfecting  her  works  for  the  use  of  man,  upoa 
the  same  ground. 

The  crops  best  adapted  to  sandy  soils  are,  common 
turnips,  potatoes,  carrots,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  clo- 
ver, sainfoin,  and  other  grasses.  Wheat  is  not  very  nat- 
ural to  this  soil ;  but  wl.en  in  good  condition,  it  will  pro- 
duce tolerable  crops  of  this  grain  ;  particularly  when 
sown  on  a  sward  of  clover  turned  under.  The  lighter 
kinds  of  it  are  too  little  retentive  of  moisture,  during^ 
the  heats  of  summer,  for  p;ood  crop»  cf  Indian  corn  ;  but 
those  which  are  dark  coloured  are  generally  good  for 
this  crop.  In  some  places  the  most  valuable  improve- 
ment upon  this  kind  of  land  has  been  made  by  laying  it 
into  grass,  and  treating  it  with  top-dressings  of  difierent 
kinds  of  soils,  which,  when  liberally  applied,  have,  often 
changed  the  appearance,  tmd  so  much  altered  its  na- 
ture, as  to  render  it  capable  of  bearing  a  succession  of 
valuable  crops  of  grain.  Even  a  blodng  sand  may  be 
reduced  to  a  loam,  by  eov/ing  plaisler,  r/ith  red  top,  or 
other  fibrous  rooted  gi-asses,  until  a  swai-d  can  be  obtain- 
ed, then  dress  with  plaisler  ^and  such  things  as  mention- 
ed above,  and  mix  them  Vv^ell  with  the  sandy  turf  by 
harrowing.  The'^frosts  and  rain  ©f  winter  will  also  as- 
sist in  tbir?.  When  the  sward  hi*  become  strong  and 
rich  by  the  aid  of  manures,  break  up  by  deep  plough- 
ing; take  one  crop  of  potatoes,  or  grain,  k-y  down,  and 
proceed  as  before  ;  in  a  few  years  it  will  be  r  rich  sandy 
loam. 

Sandy  soils  push  forward  crops  much  sooner  than  oth- 
er soils,  they  are  of  all  others  the  least  productive  of 
weeds.  Turnips,  &c.  raised  on  them  are  of  a  better 
flavour,  and  less  liable  to  be  attacked  by  wonns.  Fruitg 
or  seeds  ripened  on  such  soils  are  better  to  keep,  be- 
cause they  contain  the  fewest  watery  particles. 

It  is  a  rule,  in  regard  to  sandy  soils,  never  to  pick  off 
any  small  stones  that  may  be  found  in  them,  as  they  con- 
tribute to  prevent  evaporotion,  and  to  preserve  moii. 
ture. 


DIVISION?    OF    FARMS.  3*7 

Ar.  tlie  qualities  of  ail  soils  vary  considerably,  everj 
S^riculturist  ought  to  make  him'^elf  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  his  land,  and  also  the  property  of  manures, 
a  judicious  application  of  which,  with  a  proper  course 
of  crops  and  thorough  tillage  are  the  chief  and  gran4 
secrets  of  agrioulture. 


DIVISION    OF    FARMSV 

In  the  dividing  of  lands,  by  menn^  of  fences,  regard 
should  be  had  to  a  variety  of  circumstance?,  such  as  the 
size  of  the  farms,  and  the  nature  of  them,  as  well  as  to 
the  uses  to  which  they  are  to  be  converted;  and  the 
materials  of  wiiich  fences  are  to  be  formed,-  There  is 
not  a  more  expensive,  perplexing  circumstance  about  a 
farm,  thon  the  liekls  being  in  a  stragling,  disjointed  situ- 
ation. The  judicious  division  of  a  farm,  will  save  much 
labor,  especially  in  travelling  from  one  part  to  another. 
Crooked  fences  should  be  avoided,  both  on  account  of 
expense,  and  appearance.  Although  large  farms  should 
have  largo  iields,  yet  small  ones  need  not  have  propor- 
tionally small  iields,  for  the  same  field  may  be  appropri- 
ated to  different  crops,  and  the  expence  of  division  fen- 
ces saved.  But  whatever  the  dimensions  adopted,  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  the  convenience  of  water,  the 
purposes  of  draining,  and  the  bringing  together  lands' 
of  a  similar  quality,  or,  such  as  can  be  cuiiivated  and 
sown  under  the  same  circumstances. 

All  tillage  lots,  especially  small  ones,  should  be  square, 
to  save  labour  in  ploughing.  For,  if  a  lot  be  long  and 
narrow,  cross  ploughing  will  be  either  prevented,  or  the 
labour  of  it  much  increased.  If  possible,  tillage  lots 
should  be  near  the  barn,  to  save  labour  in  carting  ma- 
nure. Mowing  lots  should  be  next  to  the  tillage,  if  the 
soil  permits  ;  as  these  must  be  dunged,  and  their  crop* 
carted  :  The  lots  for  pasturage  should  be  next,  and  the 
wood  lots  the  most  distant  from  the  house,  that  the  view 
of  the  others  may  not  be  obstructed. 

FENCES. 

Poor  fences  are  productive  of  incalculable  mischief  to 
the  farmer.     By  these  his  cropi    aro  constantly    liable 


68  CIVISIO??    OF    FARMS. 

to  be  destro3^cd,  and  his  cattle  become  habitually  unru- 
ly. One  unruly  creature  will  learn  others  to  be  so  ; 
and  thus  the  farmer  with  his  poor  fences,  finds  his  cat- 
tle, instead  of  being  profitable,  to  become  productive 
of  unceasing  losses,  and,  what  follows  of  course,  of  un- 
ceasing vexation.  When  the  farmer  is  conscious  that 
he  cannot  even  sleep  in  peace,  on  account  of  the  dan- 
ger of  his  cattle  destroying  the  fruits  of  his  labours,  he 
cannot  be  said  to  enjoy  that  tranquility  which  ought  to 
be  the  reward  of  the  sweat  of  his  brow.  Rather,  there- 
fore, let  him  make  his  fences  what  might  be  generally 
deemed  more  than  sufficiently  high  and  strong,  than  too 
low  and  weak.  This,  if  it  be  an  error,  is  erring  on  the 
safe  side ;  on  the  side  which  secures  the  fruits  of  his  la- 
bors, promotes  his  tranquillity  and  happiness,  and  tends 
to  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  harmony  among  neigh- 
bours. 

Log  fences^  are  best  when  built  of  white  pine,  lasting 
perhaps  20  years.  The  next  in  durability  are  pitch  pine, 
hemlock,  ash,  oak,  and  white  maple.  Bass  wood, 
poplar,  birch,  beach,  and  rock  maple  soon  rot.  Logs  that 
are  peeled  will  last  much  longer. 

Worm  fences^  are  made  with  most  ease,  but  require 
more  timber  than  some  others. 

Post  and  rail  fences^  and  board  fences  are  very  good 
when  the  soil  is  dry.  In  a  wet  soil  the  posts  will  be 
moved  by  frosts.  The  posts  should  be  put  two  feet  in- 
to the  ground.  Red  cedar,  locust,  and  chestnut  are  best. 
Butter-nut,  black-walnut,  and  oak  are  pretty  good,  last- 
ing about  15  years.  Letting  the  bark  remain  on  that 
part  of  the  post  put  into  the  ground,  is  supposed  to  ren- 
der it  more  durable.  For  the  rails,  cedar  is  best,  last- 
ing perhaps  an  age.  If  timber  is  scarce,  and  the  ground 
is  level  and  free  from  stones,  post  and  rail  fences,  set  in 
a  bank  made  of  the  earth  of  two  small  ditches  throw  n 
up  together,  ought  to  be  preferred.  If  the  posts  are  too 
small  to  have  holes  made  through  them,  the  rails  may 
be  flatted  at  the  ends,  and  fastened  to  the  posts  with 
spikes,  or  with  wooden  pins  well  secured. 

Stone  ■wall.  Building  walls  is  not  only  the  way  to  clear 
ground  of  a  bad  incumbrance,  but  it  is  the  best  and  cheap- 
est of  all  fences  in  the  end,  tor  if  properly  made,  it  will 
last  an  age,  with  some  trifling  repairs.     On  a  hard,  sandy. 


I*[PLEMENT5.  *  39 

■©r  gTavelly  bottom,  if  built  with  good  stones,  a  wall  will 
stand  very  well  without  digging  a  trench.  On  a  clay 
or  miry  soil,  the  foundation  should  be  laid  in  a  trench, 
nearij^  as  low  as  the  earth  freezes.  The  best  way  is  to 
dig  a  trench  to  the  depth  of  about  eighteen  inches  ;  into 
this  throw  all  the  small  and  bad  shaped  stones,  until  the 
trench  is  tilled  ;  then  on  the  top  of  these  build  the  wail, 
in  a  mason-like  manner,  to  the  height  of  about  five  feet, 
and  threw  the  earth  dug  out  of  the  trench  up  against 
the  wall  en  each  side. 

Hedges^  are  to  be  recommended  where  timber  and 
Btone  are  very  scarce.  Mr.  Qr.incy  of  Massachusetts, 
has  a  hedge  255  rods  long,  made  of  American  Hedge 
Thorn,  planted  five  inches  apart.  The  whole  cost  for 
six  years,  (when  it  was  a  sufficient  fence,)  including  the 
plants  procured  from  the  district  of  Columbia,  was  ^1G7 
(about  66  cents  a  rod.)  He  thinks,  where  the  labour 
is  performed  by  the  farmer  himself,  a  complete  hedge 
may  be  formed  in  six  or  seven  years,  for  less  than  fiiiy 
cents  a  rod.  For  his  method  of  management,  see  Dean's 
New  England  Farmer,  3d  edition.  See  also  Cobbetfs 
American  Gardener. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  New-England  Cockspur  thors 
is  equally  as  good  as  that  used  by  Mr.  Quiacy. 


IMPLEMENTS. 


The  present  period  of  low  prices  of  products,  and  the 
necessity  of  economy,  renders  it  expedient  to  enquire 
whether  the  labour  of  conducting  our  farms  may  not  be 
abridged  by  the  more  general  introduction  of  what  are 
called  labour-saving  machines. 

Mr.  Burgess,  a  noted  agriculturist  of  this  state,  ob- 
serves, that  our  ploughs  are  far  from  the  best ;  our 
harrows  quite  inditferent :  rollers,  scarifiers,  drills,  and 
threshing  machines,  scarcely  used.  He  calculates  that 
Wood's  New-York  cast-iron  plough,  can  be  moved  with 
a  power,  one  quarter  less,  and  that  it  will  then  do  one 
quarter  more  work  than  any  other  plough  in  use  in  the 
state.  One  hundred  and  twenty  acres  were  ploughed 
.by  four  of  these  ploughs  in  one  season )   and  the  wliole 


41)  IfflfLEMENTa. 

expense  of  keeping  them  sharp  aiid  fit  for  use  did  not 
exceed  5G  cents  each.  The  blacksmith"'s  bill  for  ordi- 
Dary  wooden  and  wrought  iron  ploughs,  for  the  same 
work,  would,  he  supposes,  have  been  ^5  each.  It  will 
te  found  therefore  that  not  less  than  four  shillings  per 
acre  will  be  saved  by  these  ploughs  ;  and  the  woriv  done 
i:i  every  respect  better.  He  caiculales  in  the  state  there 
»re  12,000  acres  under  the  plough  ;  so  that  to  save  four 
shillings  per  acre  on  this,  will  gave  ^8,000  to  the  farms 
cf  the  state  ! 

Scaritiers  are  calculated  to  do  the  work  of  a  plough 
and  a  harrow.  We  believe  that  Mr.  B'jrgess  and 
Mr.  Francis  are  the  only  persons  who  have  made 
use  of  this  implement  in  our  part  of  the  counli/.— 
llr.  Burgess  says,  that  in  ail  ianfis  free  of  stone,  or  where 
the  stones  are  loose,  and  not  too  large  to  pass  ber^veen 
the  shares  and  teeth,  and  on  which  a  crop  has  been  rai'S- 
ed,  a  man  and  a  pair  of  horses  or  good  oxen,  will  pre- 
pare the  ground  and  get  in  the  grain  on  30  acres  in  a 
week.  In  England  a  man  wiih  four  horses  and  die  broad 
scariiier  has  been  known  to  do  60  acres  of  wheat  in  a 
week. 

In  the  common  method  of  doing  this  work,  two  men, 
or  one  man  and  a  boy,  with  a  pair  of  oxen  and  a  horse 
are  employed,  and  they  hardly  finish  an  acre  per  day. — 
It  is  then  to  be  harrowed  or  bushed  or  both.  What  will 
it  all  amount  to  ?  Probably  fifteen  shillings  an  acre.  If 
jdone  with  the  scarifier,  it  will  not  cost  two  shiiungs  an 
acre.  The  use  of  the  scarifier  would  save  to  the  agri- 
culturists of  the  state  g  10,000  per  annum  ! 

We  could  name  a  number  of  instances  in  which  la- 
bour saving  ma<;hines,  for  farming  purposes,  have  been 
confined  to  a  few  large  farms,  although  as  well  adapted 
for  use  on  farms  generally,  and  attended  with  much  real 
saving.  In  such  cases  the  only  apparent  cause  has  been 
the  expense  of  the  first  cost  of  the  machine  ;  and  yet 
the  diminution  of  labour  in  the  employment  of  such  a 
machine,  would  have  amounted  in  many  instances  to  as 
niuch,  in  one  year,  as  the  machine  cost.  But  if  an  indi- 
vidual does  not  feel  able  to  buy  a  corn-sheller,  drill  ma- 
chine &c.  several  farmers  in  a  neighborhood  could  unite 
in  the  purchace  and  use  them  alternately.  A  naanuiac- 
tvirerdoes  Rot  hold  any  price  too  high  for   an  iu^prove- 


IMPLE'lENTS,  41 

nient  in  machinery,  whereby  hibour  mar  be  saved. — 
Shall  it  be  saiJ  of  the  fanner  alone,  that  he  i^riows  not 
how  to  appreciate  the  wonderful  inventions  and  im- 
provements, almost  daily  announced  to  us. 

Imperfect  labour  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  de- 
fective implements ;  but  where  attention  is  bestowed 
in  constructing  them,  the  different  processes  of  labour, 
|iiay,  with  justice,  be  considered  as  perfectly  executed. 

On  a  trial,  in  England,  to  ascertain  the  quantum  of 
power  required  to  draw  different  ploughs,  it  was  found 
that  some,  although  lighter  than  others,  employed  one 
ibird  more  power  to  move  them  in  the  furrow.  In  the 
formation  and  construction  of  all  sorts  of  tools  and  ma- 
chinery for  the  uses  of  the  farmer,  the  principal  aim 
should  be  that  of  rendering  the  work  they  are  to  per- 
form more  cheap,  easy,  expeditious,  and  complete,  by 
having-  them  perfectly  suited  to  the  operations  for  which 
they  are  intended,  and  at  the  same  time  not  too  weigh- 
ty, v/hi!e  they  possess  sufficient  degrees  of  strength  for 
the  different  purposes  to  which  they  may  be  applied. 

Every  careful  farmer,  says  Sinclair,  will  lay  it  down, 
as  a  rule,  frequently  to  inspect  all  his  implements^  and 
when  any  part  of  any  of  them  is  observed  in  the  least 
damaged,  or  in  danger  of  giving  way,  he  will  take  care 
immediately  to  have  it  repaired.  An  implement,  als-, 
that  is  not  longer  wanted  during  the  season,  should  be 
carefully  laid  up  ;  but  before  it  is  put  aside,  it  ought  to 
be  well  cleaned,  and  rendered  perfectly  dry,  oiled  or 
painted,  if  made  of  iron,  and  kept  so  as  to  be  ready  for 
"use  when  wanted.  No  circumstance  marks  more  the 
character  of  an  attentive  husbandman.  Upon  every  faim 
likewise,  there  ought  to  be  one  or  more  places  properly 
constructed,  for  holding  the  larger  implements  ;  and 
some  secure  place  allotted,  for  containing  the  smaller 
tools.  Where  machines  are  necessarily  exposed  in  the 
field,  a  great  part  of  the  season,  they  require  to  be  new- 
ly painted,  at  least  every  second  year. 

The  importance  of  proper  implements  is  such,  that 
the  melioration  of  those  in  use,  would  be  an  essential 
advantage  to  agriculture  ;  and  great  as  are  the  mechan- 
ical improvements  which  have  been  already  made,  man}'' 
of  them  are  capable  of  being  brought  to  stUl  greater  per- 
fection.    Persons  of  genius    and   experience   therefor^^ 


42  .TILLAGE. 

ong'ht  to  be  encourag'ed  to  devote  their  time  and  ritteR- 
tion  to  this  most  important  object ;  and  to  exert  them- 
selves, either  to  improve  the  various  sorts  of  implements 
now  in  use,  or  in  the  invention  of  superior  ones,  as  cir- 
cumstances may  require.  The  invention  of  an  useful 
implement,  by  which  the  labours  of  agriculture  can  be 
brought  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection,  anil  the  ex- 
pense of  cultivation  at  the. same  time  dimini-^hed,  must 
prove  of  the  most  essential  service  to  the  farmer. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  anxious  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  great  improvements  which  have  al- 
ready been  made  in  agricultural  implements,  it  may  be 
proper  to  state,  that  Repositories  for  Agricultural  Im- 
plements and  Machinery,  have  been  estabhshed  in  the 
cities  of  New-York  and  Boston,  and  we  sincerely  hope^ 
that  the  exertions  of  the  proprietors,  may,  by  a  judicious 
public,  be  liberally  rewarded. 


TILLAGE. 


There  cannot,  says  Mr.  Madison,  be  a  more  rational 
principle  m  the  code  of  agriculture,  than  that  every  farm 
which  is  in  good  heart  should  be  kept  so  ;  that  every 
one  not  in  good  heart  should  be  made  so  ;  and  that  what 
is  right  as  to  the  farm,  generally,  is  so  as  to  every  part 
of  every  farm.  Any  system  thereibre,  or  want  of  sys- 
tem, which  tends  to  make  a  rich  iarm  poor,  or  does  not 
tend  to  make  a  poor  farm  rich,  cannot  be  good  for  the 
owner;  whatever  it  may  be  for  the  tenant  or  superin- 
temhmt,  who  has  transient  interest  only  in  it.  The 
profit,  vv^here  there  is  any,  will  not  balance  the  loss  of 
intrinsic  value  sustained  by  the  land. 

Experiments  which  have  been  made  with  the  spade, 
shew  how  great  is  the  yield  w  hen  that  instrument  has 
been  employed ;  and  though  it  would  be  impossible  to 
introduce  it  when  labour  is  high,  yet  it  affords  a  useful 
lesson,  and  shews  that  there  is  little  danger  of  working 
our  land  too  much. 

Ncthinof  is  better  calculated  to  ward  off  the  effects  of 
droughts,  which  are  often  so  injiirious  in  this  country 
jhan  good  cultivation  by  ploughing  sutiiciently  deep,  and 


TILLAGE.  43 

ifeaiiiireing'  well;  both  of  which  increase  moisture.  Be- 
sides, ground  well  prepared,  and  manured,  shoots  forth 
its  crops  so  rapidly,  that  the  ground  is  soon  covered  and 
shaded  from  the  heat  of  the  sun ;  and,  for  this  reason, 
retains  its  moisture  longer.  The  same  may  be  observ- 
ed of  mowing  lands.  Sometimes  lands  of  good  soil  are 
found  too  closely  underlaid  with  rock,  to  be  sufticiently 
retentive  of  moisture,  in  times  of  drought  ;  such  may 
answer  for  orcharding,  for  the  smaller  fruit  trees,  or  for 
pastures,  by  having  considerable  growths  of  locust  at  the 
same  time,  on  the  grounds,  to  prevent  the  effects  of 
drought. 

In  tilling  lands,  it  is  essential  that  it  be  done  in  the 
right  season  ;  that  it  be  done  effectually^  and,  in  order  to 
this,  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  have  the  implements 
of  tillage  well  constructed^  and  kept  in  good  order. 

Lands    should    always  be    applied  to  that  tillage  for 
ivhich  they  are  best  adapted  ;    or,   in    other    words,  in 
which  they  will  3ield  the  greatest  clear  profit.    If  there- 
fore, the  farmer  has  lands  which  are  only  fitted  for  grass 
let  him  not  waste  his  labour  in  trying  to  raise  grain  on 
them.     If  he  has   broken  hills  and  declivities,  they  will 
g'enerally    but  poorly  repay    the    unpleasant    labor  of 
cultivating  them  with  the  plough  and  the  hoe  :    Rather 
let  such  be  kept  for  sheep-pastures,  for  orchards,  or  for 
raising  timber.     High  lands  are  most  generally  selected 
for  tillage.    But  low  and  moist  lands,  well  drained,  ridg- 
ed, and  water-furrowed,    are    often    more   productive  ; 
and  there  is  less  danger  of  exhausting    them.     If  lands 
are  rocky  and  ston}^,   to  plough  and  hoe    them  is  a  diui- 
cult    and   laborious  employment  ^   and   generally    can- 
not be  productive  of  much  profit,   till  the    impediments 
are  removed.  If  they  are  too  light  and  sandy,  they  may, 
nevertheless,  be  made  to  yield  good  crops  of  tap-rooted 
plants,  such  as  turnips,  carrots,  and  clover  ;  or  of  such 
as  ripen  early,  as    rye,  for    instance ;  or  that  bear  the 
drought  well,    as  saintfoin,  lucerne,  provided  they   are 
not  hilly  ;  or    if  hilly,   such  trees   as  flourish    in  sandy 
soils,  as  the  locust,  &c.     If  lands  be  boggy,   When  well 
drained,  they  will  be    found  very  profitable    for  hemp, 
which  they  will  bear  yearly,  with  the  aid  of  small  year- 
ly additions  of  manure;  but  if  they  be  modern  tely  level, 
smooth,  and  of  a  gootl  medium  soil ;    that  i-,  such  as  is 


44  tlLLAQE; 

f  quiilly  adapted  for  g^rain  and  for  grasses  ;  there  let  th.\ 
farmer  pursue  the  culture  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  in  such, 
ciaaner  as  he  linds  will  alTord  him  the  greatest  clear 
pro  tit. 

The  expense  of  any  kind  of  tillage  never  should  be 
regarded,  where  clear  profits  proportionately  great  may 
be  safely  calculated  on,  as  a  general  result.  Neither 
»houId  the  expense  of  tillage  be  regarded  where  the 
felear  profits  will  be  great,  though  not  to  be  realized  ia 
some  years,  if  it  may  be  calculated  that  such  profits  may 
certainly  be  expected. 

OBSTHUCTIONS    TO    TILLAGE. 

Stones  lying  above  or  below  the  surface  are,  in  New- 
England,  the  most  formidable  obstructi'in  to  pertect  til- 
lage. On  stony  ground,  the  work  is  not  only  imperfect- 
ly executed,  but  in  many  cases  the  implement  is  broken 
to  pieces,  and  much  time  lost.  The  removal  of  stones 
therefore,  ought  to  be  a  primary  object  with  every  ag- 
riculturist ;  because  a  neglect  of  this  kind  may  atler^ 
wards  occasion  him  considerable  loss  and  inconvenience. 
The  soil  round  a  large  stone  is  commonly  the  best  m 
}he  lield,  by  gaining  the  use  of  it,  much  benefit  is  deriv- 
ed, independent  of  the  facility  which  is  thus  afiorded  to 
i:he  ploughman's  operations.  When  the  clearing  the 
hna  of  auch  Incumbrances,  is  attended  with  great  diiTi- 
'vmU}^,  it  is  always  advisable  to  calculate,  whether  the  ad- 
ditional value  of  the  land,  when  cleared,  will  warrant 
llic  expense  ;  an  addilional  inducement,  however,  for 
incurring  the  expense,  is,  that  these  incumbrances  are 
usually  good  materials  for  making  the  most  substantial 
(and  of  fence.  Where  rocks  and  stones  are  numerous, 
walls  may  be  made  thicker  and  higher  than  is  needful 
(.11  other  accounts  ;  and  lots  should  be  made  smaller; 
a:screly  to  dispose  of  the  stones. 

By  experiments  accurately  made,  it  is  found,  that 
small  stones  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  are  benelicial, 
In  a  small  degree,  in  increasing  its  products  ;  but  thej 
are  too  troublesome,  in  good  Cultivation,  to  be  desirable, 
on  account  of  all  the  benetit  to  be  derived  from  them. 
I  nless  they  are  calcarious,  or  partake  of  the  nature  of 
lime  stone,  they  sliould  be  taken  away,  or  at  least  so 
much  thinned,   that  pUnghing  and  hoeing  may  be  com- 


TILLAGBi  4o 

fbrtably  performed,  and  without  injury  to  the  tool?. 
^Vhere  ground  is  full  of  very  small  stones,  they  may  be 
drove  down  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  tlie  scythe,  by 
having  a  roller  passed  over  the  ground  in  the  spring, 
when  it  is  very  soft,  as  the  stones  are  then  easily  pres- 
sed into  it. 

To  drain  the  ground  also  facilitates  tillage  exceeding- 
ly ;  for  ploughing  cannot  be  performed  with  advantage, 
where  either  the  surface  or  subsoil  is  wet.  In  fact,  ev- 
ery branch  of  good  husbandry  is  intimately  connected 
with  another ;  and  the  practice  of  one  branch  is  neces- 
sarily much  aifected  by  the  way  in  which  others  are  ex- 
ecuted. To  drain  land  well,  therefore,  materially  pro- 
motes good  tillage  ;  and  by  good  tillage  the  beneficial 
effects  of  manures  are  considerably  increased.  To  dis- 
charge one  of  these  fundamental  dutiies  of  the  husband- 
man, while  the  others  are  neglected,  can  only  be  re- 
garded as  performing  a  duty  which  will  yield  small  ben- 
efit to  those  concerned  ;  but  to  fulfil  the  v*^hoie  duties 
Jncumbent  on  the  husbandman,  namely,  to  keep  his 
iaiid  dry,  clean,  and  rich  ;  mui^t  be  estimated  the  height 
©f  perfection  in  the  rural  art. 

PLOUGHING. 

The  wise  and  judicious  Romans  considered  ploughing 
the  most  essential  of  all  the  preparations  which  the 
earth  undergoes.  They  laid  it  down  as  a  maxim  to  sow 
but  little,  and  plough  much.  Cato  was  thoroughly  con- 
Tinced  of  this  truth,  when  he  laid  down  as  the  first  rule 
in  husbandry  to  plough  well ;  the  second,  to  p/ow^o-/i  ;  and 
the  third  to  manure  ;  intimating  by  this,  that  ploughing 
alone  is  of  greater  consequence  than  ail  the  other  means 
of  cultivating  lands. 

J\'umbcr  of  plovghings  necessary. — It  is  an  important 
maxim  in  husbandry  that  the  earth  should  be  thoroughly 
stirred  by  deep  and  frequent  plovghings  and  harrozvins^s. — 
When  this  is  done  the  consistence  of  the  soil  is  impro- 
ved, the  small  fibrous  roots  oi"  plants  have  liberty  to 
spread  freely,  and  to  accpure  such  nourishment,  as  could 
not  possibly  be  obtained  when  confined  between  large 
impenetrable  clods  of  earth.  By  its  assistance,  the  ma- 
nure, and  the  seed,  are  most  advantageously  inserted. 
It  can  be  employed  to  destroy  almost  all  kinds  of  weeds 
5* 


4o  TILLAoE,. 

and  various  tribog  of  insects.  It  is  supposed  that  double 
tillaf^e  will  preserve  and  continue  the  effects  of  manure 
nearly  twice  as  long  as  with  ordinary  management. — 
Where  manures  cannot  be  had  in  due  quantity,  tillage 
will  in  a  manner  supply  the  deficiency  ;  and  where  they 
are  ever  so  plentiful,  it  will  be  a  means  of  giving  them 
greater  effect.  The  finer  the  earth  is  made,  the  more 
it  is  enriched  by  dews,  rain  and  air.  For  it  has  been 
lound  by  experiment,  that  by  taking  some  of  the  most 
barren  earth,  powdering  it  well,  exposing  it  abroad  for 
a  year,  and  stirring  it  about  frequently,  it  will  become 
so  fertile  as  to  receive  and  nourish  almost  any  plant  in 
a  high  degree.  Thorough  ploughing  therefore,  is  of 
such  absolute  necessity,  that  whoever  is  wanting  ia 
this  work,  must  expect  a  deficiency  of  crop. 

Agriculture,  like  other  business,  having  profit  for  its 
object,  is  a  subject  of  calculation  ;  and  its  labors  must  be 
regulated  by  its  end.  The  number  of  ploughings  must 
depend  upon  the  soil,  weather^  season,  crop  and  cul- 
ture. For  wheat  the  ground  should  at  least  be  thrice 
ploughed  ;  but  wheat  requires  more  preparatory  plough- 
ing than  rye,  and  rye  more  than  oats.  Clay  ground 
demands  more  tillage  than  calcarious  earth,  and  calcar- 
ious  earth  more  than  sand.  Wet  or  dry  weather  makes 
frequent  ploughings  (according  to  circumstances)  either 
useful,  injurious,  or  impracticable. 

Proper  season  to  plough The    prevailing    opinion  is 

strongly  in  favor  of  fall  ploughing;  because  to  the  ac- 
tion of  air  and  moisture,  it  adds  that  of^ro^f,  wliich  may 
be  considered  as  a  plough,  superior  to  any  thing  that 
Can  be  made  by  the  hand  of  man  ;  it  expands  the  mois- 
ture, which  requiring  more  sppice  removes  every  par- 
ticle of  earth,  and  separates  them  from  each  other.  Al- 
most all  tillage  land  should,  therefore,  be  ploughed  in 
autumn,  both  in  new  and  old  ground.  But  all  clay  op 
loam}'  soils  are  more  particularly  benefited  by  fall  plough- 
ing ;  because  on  those  the  action  of  frost  is  greater,  and 
because  one  ploughing  of  this  kind  may  save  two  in  the 
.spring,  when  time  is  every  thing  ;  besides  our  teams 
at  that  season  of  the  year,  are  much  weaker  than  they 
are  in  the  fall.  But  land  ploughed  in  the  fall  must  be 
again  ploughed  in  the  >-:pring  ;  and  a  weaker  team  can 
then  be  able  to  perform  it.     Fall  ploughing  is  also  con- 


TILLASET.  4^ 

siidered  the  most  effectual  method  to  destroy  worms. — 
The  last  of  summer,  or  the  beginning  of  autumn,  is  the- 
right  season  for  ploughing  new  ground-  For  it  will  bo 
best  to  harrow,  and  cross  plough  it,  before  it  is  seeded, 
that  the  soil  may  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  pulverized. 
Therefore  the  tirst  ploughing  should  be  performed  so 
long  before  hand,  that  before  the  second,  the  turf  may 
ferment  and  become  partly  rotten.  But  this  is  not  to 
be  expected,  if  the  ground  be  ploughed  late  in  the  fall ; 
because  the  sun,  at  that  late  season,  will  not  warm  the 
ground  enough  to  bring  on  any  fermentation  before  the 
following  spring,  when  the  ground  is  to  be  sowed.  For 
fall  sowing,  the  ground  should  be  broken  up  in  the 
spring  or  early  in  the  summer. 

Soils  of  so  retentive  a  nature,  as  to  hold  more  wrter^ 
than  is  useful  in  vegetation,  should  be  ploughed  in  a 
medium  state,  vvhen  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry.  When 
very  dry  it  is  difficult  to  plough  them,  being  so  hard  and 
tenacious,  and  if  very  wet,  the  ground  is  injured  by  ths 
feet  of  the  cattle.  Green  sward  however,  can  be  plough- 
ed when  pretty  wet,  if  not  mir}' ;  because  the  labour  ii 
more  easy  for  man  and  beast.  But  it  v.ill  not  rot  so  well 
as  when  dr3\  The  proper  time  for  ploughing  orjharrow- 
ing  in  general,  is  when  the  soil  upon  stirring  crumbles 
into  small  parts. 

Spring  ploughing  will  answer  very  well  for  a  sandy 
soil,  as  such  ground  does  not  require  the  aid  of  frost. — 
Ploughing  in  such  soils  should  be  carried  on  in  damp 
weather,  particularly  the  last  ploughing  and  the  sowin:^ 
of  the  seed.  It  is  likewise  recommended  to  plough  such 
lands  as  much  as  possible,  when  the  dew  is  on. 

Depth  of  Ploughing  necessary. — The  depth  to  plough,, 
must  generally  be  regulated  by  the  depth  of  the  soil  ; 
and  the  sort  of  crops  to  be  grown  ;  tap  rooted  requiring 
deeper  tillage  than  others.  If  the  vegitable  soil  be  deep, 
deep  ploughing  will  be  proper;  especially  where  the 
upper  stratum  has  become  exhausted  by  severe  croping 
and  that  below  is  a  strong  earth,  which  can  readily  be 
fertilized  by  the  frost  and  sun.  But  if  the  vegitable 
mould  be  shallow,  deep  ploughing,  will  bring  up  part 
of  the  subsoil,  which  will  not  be  fertile,  until  some  time 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  If  the  earth  below  is  natu- 
rally very  poor,  requiring  a  long  time   to  be  made  for- 


45  TitLAGB, 

tile  in  this  way,  injury  may  result  from  ploughing  deep- 
er than  usual. 

Where,  however,  it  becomes  part  of  the  farmer's  ob- 
ject to  increase  the  depth  of  the  surface  soil,  deep  plough- 
ing is  inJispensible ;  and  in  this,  as  in  many  other  cases, 
we  must  submit  to  present  inconvenience  for  the  ad- 
vantage of  future  benefit.  Farmers  are  sometimes  led 
to  plough  too  shallo^v,  to  save  a  little  labour;  and  some 
are  afraid  to  turn  up  what  they  call  dead  earth ;  but  all 
the  soil  above  the  hard  pan  may  be  well  employed  in 
tillage  ;  n4id  if  a  red  soil  is  turned  up,  it  will  in  a  year 
or  two  become  dark,  if  properly  tilled. 

The  depth  may  also  in  some  measure  depend  on  the 
means  crimproving  the  sci) :  for  where  the  laud  is  poor 
and  the  means  of  enriching  it  scanty,  the  depth  must  be 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  manure  to  be  obtained, 
and  the  number  ofpioughings  to  be  given  to  it. 

Soils  are  rarely  found,  that  ought  not  to  be  ploughed 
in  common  6  inches  deep;  many  8  and  some  10,  v/hich 
wiiibe  about  as  low  as  the  rcots  of  any  common  crop 
•wi/l  descend.  One  ploughing  to  the  full  depth  every 
i2,  18,  or  24  months,  will  answer — shallower  tillage  at 
other  times  will  do. 

A  vegitable  soil  will  seldom  be  deeper,  than  where 
the  plough  has  penetrated.  Where,  however,  shallow 
ploughing  has  always  been  practised,  it  may  not  be  ad- 
visable to  shift  at  once  to  the  greatest  depth  that  is  to 
be  ultimately  hxed  upon  as  proper,  lest  too  great  a  pro- 
portion of  barren  earth  should  be  turned  up,  and  injure 
the  crops  immediately  succeedmg. 

The  advantages  of  frequent  deep  ploughings  are  ma- 
ny. Roots  extend  far  where  they  meet  no  resistance  ; 
and  the  growth  above  the  surface  corresponds  to  that 
below.  If  more  rain  falls  than  the  soil  can  retain,  it  des- 
cends to  the  l)ottom  of  the  furrow,  and  seldom  does 
damage.  It  keeps  the  ground  moist,  and  should  never 
be  omitted  in  drought,  or  in  lands  liable  to  be  inju.red  by 
drought.  Bringing  up  the  new  mould  is  peculiarl}^  favor- 
able to  clover,  turnips,  and  potatoes.  By  deep  plough- 
ing, animal  and  vegitabie  manures,  which  have  a  ten- 
dency to  rise  to  the  surface,  are  properly  covered,  &:c. 

Ridge  Ploifghing. — If  the  soil  is  naturally  dry,  plough 
flat,  and  as  level  as  possible,  this   will  give  an  equal  dif- 


fusion  of  moisture  thro^jghout  the  field ;  but  if  the  soil 
is  moist,  plough  into  wide  ridges  of  18  to  24  feet,  and  if 
it  is  a  wet,  heavy  soil,  let  the  ridges  not  exceed  6  to  12 
feet.  The  object  of  ridge  ploughing,  is  to  improve  the 
furrow  between  the  ridges,  as  drains  for  the  water, 
therefore  multiply  your  drains,  by  narrowing  the  land:*, 
or  ridges,  according  to  the  moisture  of  the  soil ;  and  so 
vice  versa.  This  is  the  best,  if  not  only  method  of  equal- 
izing moist  and  wet  lands.  Wet  clays,  and  ground  ia 
which  clay  predominates,  whatever  be  the  culture, 
should  generally  be  made  to  take  this  form;  because, 
it  powerfully  tends  to  drain  the  soil  and  carry  off  from 
the  roots  of  the  growmg  plants,  that  superiluous  water, 
which  left  to  itself,  would  seriously  aflect  both  the  qual- 
ity,  and  the  quantity  of  their  prod'.ic  s. 

Ploughing  hills. — Shallow  ploughing,  and  ploughing  up 
and  down  hilly  land,  have,  by  exposing  the  loosened  soil 
to  be  carried  off  by  rains,  hastened  more  than  any  thing 
else,  the  waste  of  its  fertility.  When  the  mere  surface 
is  pulverised,  moderate  rains  on  land  but  litttle  uneven, 
if  ploughed  up  and  down,  gradually  wear  it  away.  And 
heavy  rains  on  hilly  lands,  ploughed  in  that  manner  soon 
produce  a  like  effect,  notwithstanding  the  improved  pcac- 
tice  of  deeper  ploughing. 

These  evils  may  be  remedied  by  a  cultivation  in  hor- 
izontal drills  with  a  plough  adapted  to  it ;  or,  as  propo- 
sed by  Mr.  Butler,  of  Connecticut,  author  of  the  Far- 
rarer's  Manual,  by  carrying  a  furrow  down  the  hill  only, 
and  by  inclining  this  furrow  to  the  left  hand,  directly 
in  proportion  to  the  descent  of  the  declivity — and  suf- 
fermg  the  team  to  re-ascend  the  hill  without  a  furrow. 
This  will  lessen  the  day's  w^ork,  not  one  half,  but  about 
one  third,  because  the  team  will  travel  so  much  faster, 
both  up  and  down  the  hill,  when  they  carry  but  one  fur- 
row. In  this  wa}^,  the  steepest  hill  may  be  ploughed 
without  a  single  furrow  left  open  to  the  wash,  except 
the  last  one,  and  the  saving  in  the  strength  of  tlie  team, 
and  in  the  value  of  the  crop,  which  will  arise  from  the 
extra  goodness  of  the  ploughing,  will  doubly  compea* 
sate  for  the  loss  of  time. 

Grounds  upon  the  sides  of  hills  are  poorer  than  oth- 
ers, and  require  a  great  deal  of  manure,  which  with  the 
finest  mould  will  be  soon  washed  away,  unless  «om^ 
method  lika  the  above  is  adopted. 


^0  TILLAGE. 

It  is  a  bad  practice  to  plough  furrows  constantly  a*^ 
gainst  the  lence.  It  has  a  tendency  to  deprive  certain 
parts  of  the  field  of  the  necessary  quantity  of  earth, — 
They  sliould  be  turned  as  often  from  the  fence  as  against 
it.  Indeed,  it  would  be  desinvble,  in  every  part  of  the 
field,  to  have  the  gathering-furrows  always  at  the  pla- 
ces where  the  last  parting-furroAvs  were  made. 

The  ploughmen  should  never  turn  his  furrow  wider 
than  the  plough  share  will  cut  clean  ;  but  always  as 
much  narrower,  as  the  stiffness  of  the  soil  shall  render 
necessary,  to  lay  his  furrows  smooth  and  light,  and  free 
from  clods  ;  in  all  such  cases  of  narrow  furrow,  the  ex- 
tra expense  of  ploughing,  will  be  saved  in  the  expense 
of  harrowing,  with  this  advantage  to  the  crop,  that  the 
harrow  pulverizes  only  the  surface  ;  but  the  plough, 
when  properly  directed,  renders  the  earth  mellow,  to 
the  whole  depth  of  the  furrow.  One  such  ploughing 
will  prove  as  beneficial  as  two  partially  performed. 

HARROWING. 

No  instrument  of  husbandry  requires  the  judgment  of 
the  farmer  more  than  the  harrow.  The  fertility  of  the 
soil,  depending  upon  its  being  well  pulverized,  and  inti- 
mately mixed  with  the  manures  applied,  render  harrow- 
ing very  important.  But  many  farmers  expect  too  much 
from  it,  they  neglect  to  give  their  land  a  due  ploughing, 
trusting  to  the  harrow  to  make  it  fine.  After  going 
over  and  treading  down  the  ground  several  times,  they 
find  the  clods  still  unbroken. 

Wet  ground  should  be  harrowed  in  a  dry  time,  and  in 
the  middle  of  the  day.  Dry  soils,  when  the  dev/  is  on, 
and  moderately  dry.  When  land  is  muddy  harrowing 
will  be  injurious,  by  making  it  more  compact,  very  light 
land  will  be  rendered  more  compact  and  improved  by 
frequent  harrowing. 

Land  newly  ploughed  is  harrowed  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, the  teeth  go  deeper,  and  raise  morv'^.  mould.  If 
neglected  at  this  time,  it  should  he  done  after  a  gentle 
rain.  On  rough  soils  the  faster  the  harrow  moves,  the 
more  the  clods  are  broken,  the  teeth  kept  cleaner,  and 
the  land  mellowed.  Harrows  with  wooden  teeth,  are 
of  so  little  use,  that  it  is  the  opinion  of  some,    the  feel 


TILL  AGS.  61 

•of  the  cattle  will  do  as  much   injury    in   treading  do^.vn 
the  ground,  as  the  harrow  will  do  good. 

New  land  should  he  har i-owed  as  soon  as  possible  af- 
ter burning-  to  mix  the  ashes  effectually  with  the  scil 
before  it  is  blown  away.  A  strong  and  heavy  hr.rrow 
should  be  passed  several  times  in  the  same  place  to 
to  raise  a  .sufficient  quiinli'y  of  mould. 

On  newly  ploughed  sward  a  heavy  harrow  should  pass 
the  same  way  the  plough  did.  Where  seed  is  sown  on 
ridges,  the  harrow  ought  also  to  be  run  lengthways. — 
Or  it  may  be  in  such  a  case  to  plough  in  the  seed. 

When  there  are  many  ridges  left  after  ploughing,  it 
ought  to  be  harrowed  before  the  seeds  are  sown  ;  oth- 
ervvise  they  will  be  buried  at  unequal  depths  and  will 
come  up  in  rows  ;  some  will  remain  uncovered,  but 
most  of  them  w-ill  be  thrown  into  the  bottoms  of  the  fur- 
rows. This  will  often  be  so  deep  as  to  injure  the  crop  ; 
and  in  flax  and  hemp,  often  double  the  labour  and  ex- 
pense in  pulling.  The  growth  of  grass  seeds  will  fre- 
quently be  destroyed  by  being  covered  too  deep. — 
Where  lands  are  light,  once  over  will  answer  ;  but 
when  they  are  stiff,  twice  may  be  necessaTj'.  It  is  al- 
ways necessary  to  harrow  sufficiently  to  break  the  fur- 
row, and  level  the  surface,  otherwise  the  operation  is 
iiViperfectly  performed. 

It  would  be  a  good  plan,  for  farmers  to  employ  two 
harrows  in  succession  ;  one  of  heavy  frame,  with  few 
and  long  teeth  ;  the  other  of  lighter  frame,  with  more 
and  shorter  teeth.  The  common  harrow  often  covers 
the  seed  too  much  ;  small  seed  will  not  vegetate. welj 
at  a  depth  greater  than  two  or  three  inches. 

ROLLIXG. 

This  operation  is  of  nearly  as  much  importance  as 
harrowing,  in  reducing  and  pulverizing  strong,  heavy, 
and  adhesive  lands  ;  while  by  rendering  loose  soils  more 
compact,  the  earth  adheres  more  closely  to  the  roots  of 
the  plants,  and  thus  promotes  their  growth. 

The  rolling  of  land  in  tillage  should  be  done  only  in 
dry  weather ;  never  when  the  soil  is  so  wet  as  to  stick 
to  the  roller.  But  always  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
seed  is  sown.  No  soil  will  admit  of  roiling,  that  is  very 
^uneven,  or  much  rocky  or  stony.     But  small  stones  need 


53  TILLA8E. 

not  prevent  it ;  for  when  used  upon  sucli  gronnds  laid 
down  to  mowing,  it  presses  the  stones  into  the  earth 
even  with  the  surface,  at  the  same  time  that  it  breaks 
the  clods,  and  thus  prepares  the  way  for  the  scythe  in 
in  a  cheap,  and  easy  method.  It  is  also  usefully  em- 
ployed in  reinstating  the  roots  of  meadow  grasses,  loos- 
icned  and  raised  by  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing 
»»f  the  ground,  and  with  similar  view,  may  be  passed  over 
winter  crops  early  in  the  spring.  Wiihout  it,  all  crop« 
of  grain  sown  with  ariifioial  grasses,  e^^pecially  barley, 
cannot  well  be  taken  up  clean  with  the  rake.  Some 
think  a  crop  of  barley  in  particular,  will  be  larger  for 
rolling,  as  it  is  a  dr}^  seed,  that  needs  to  be  well  enclos- 
ed with  mould.  Rolling  after  so'.ving  and  harrowiug, 
y.'iil  cause  the  mould  to  enclose  the  seeds,  much  of 
w  hich  otherwise  lying  in  cavities  that  soon  drj^,  is  apt 
to  fail  of  vegetating.  It  is  useful  in  light  dry  soils,  for 
preventing  their  moisture  from  evaporating  too  easily  ; 
and  in  depriving  certain  insects  of  their  hiding-places  in 
the  cavities  of  the  soil.  Land  on  which  turnips  are  to 
l*e  cultivated  will  be  much  improved  by  rolling.  Flax 
ought  to  be  rolled  immediately  after  sowing;  it  makes 
the  seed  yegitate  equally,  and  prevents  after-growth.  It 
i-3  necessary  in  rolling  that  every  part  of  the  ground  re- 
ceive an  equal  impression ;  once  in  a  place  is  generally 
fluflicient. 

A  wooden  roller  about  2  feet  in  diameter,  and  6  feet 
in  length,  may  answer  the  above  purposes. 

nOEING. 

This  is  so  important,  that  no  crop  can  be  expected 
without  it.  The  deeper  land  is  hoed,  provided  the  roots 
■are  not  disturbed,  and  too  much  cut  to  pieces,  the  grea- 
ter advantage  it  will  be  to  the  plants.  The  oftenerland 
}A  hoed,  the  more  moisture  it  retiuns,  the  more  the  crops 
r.re  nourished,  and  the  better  it  stands  droughts;  draw- 
ing fresh  earth  up  near  the  plants,  increases  their 
growth,  makes  them  stand  more  tirmly,  and  protects  the 
roots  from  the  heat  of  the  sua.  Hilling  especially  ia 
hurtful ;  it  prevents  the  roots  from  having  so  much  ben- 
efit from  rains,  and  deprives  the  lower  roots  of  the  in- 
fluence oi  the  sun.  It  should  be  done  therefore  by  lit- 
tle *Bd  liftle,  at  several  hocinir^. 


FALLOWING. 


53. 


By  hoeing,  the  land  undergoes  considerable  prepara- 
tion, for  the  reception  of  succeeding*  crops.  In  soils  apt 
to  bind  after  much  wet,  which  causes  piants  to  appear 
of  a  stinted  growth,  hoeing  is  of  vast  advantage  in  pro- 
moting their  immediate  growtii  and  future  progress.  It 
serves  to  prevent  the  standing  of  water  on  the  surface, 
so  as  to  chili  the  ground,  and  check  ail  fermentation  in 
it,  &c.  But  hoeing  should  cease,  or  be  only  superficial, 
when  the  roots  are  so  far  extended  as  to  be  much  inju- 
red by  it.  Where  land  is  tolerably  free  from  ot'Stacies, 
the  frequent  use  of  the  horse  plough  to  a  considerable 
depth,  renders  the  labour  much  less  severe  and  expen- 
sive, and  more  advantageous  to  the  crop,  than  to  depend 
upon  the  hoe  alone.  The  first  time  the  plough  is  used, 
turn  the  furrow  from  the  rows,  as  near  to  the  roots  as 
possible.  At  the  next  hoeiiig,  and  all  after  hoeings,  the 
furrows  are  to  be  turned  towards  the  rows,  this  prevents 
the  plough  from  injuring  the  roots.  The  depth  should 
be  about  the  same  as  for  any  other  ploughing,  or  the  in- 
tention will  be  in  some  measure  defeated.  This  may 
render  it  necessary  sometimes  to  go  twice  in  the  same 
furrow.  A  ploiigli,  called  a  cultivator,  has  been  con- 
structed, with  two  moulboards,  which  turns  the  mould 
both  ways  at  once. 

The  opinion  entertained  by  some,  that  no  hoeing  at 
all  should  be  done  in  a  dry  time,  is  irrational  and  ridicu- 
lous. They  deprive  their  land  of  the  benefit  ■  f  the  dew 
— suffer  it  to  be  overrun  by  weeds,  and  allow  the  ground 
to  be  so  hard,  that  the  rnin  when  ilcomes  will  not  pene- 
trate it.  There  is  no  soil  perhaps,  except  a  thin  sandy 
one,  that  will  not  be  benefitted  in  hot,  dry  weather  by 
frequent  hoeings. 


FALLOWING. 

Fallowing  is  a  mode  of  preparing  land  for  the  rficep. 
tion  of  grass  seeds,  grain,  or  ether  crrps,  by  repeated 
ploughings  and  harrcwings.  Toll,  Beatson,  and  otb.cr 
writers  on  agriculture,  have  contended,  that  summer-fal- 
lowing should  never  consatute  a  part  oi  a  gcod  system 
oi  husbandry  ;  that  the  necessity  of  iaiiowing  may  be  ob- 
6 


54  FALLOWING. 

Yiatedby  the  adoption  of  the  drill  husbandry,  or,  by  a 
judicious  rotation  of  crops.  This  remark  will  apply 
with  peculiar  force,  to  the  soils  and  climate  of  New- 
England. 

WEEDS. 

The  farmer  views  plants  in  a  very  different  light  from 
the  botanist.  All  are  weeds  with  the  husbandman  that 
give  obstruction  to  the  plants  he  propagates  in  his  farm. 
It  is  in  vain  to  expect  good  crops,  and  folly  to  go  to  the 
expense  of  seed  and  labour,  unless  they  are  kept  free 
from  weeds,  and  particularly,  while  they  are  young. 

If  weeds  be  neglected,  or  their  destruction  but  par- 
tially performed,  perhaps  not  more  than  one  half  of  the 
crop,  will  be  obtained,  even  from  the  very  best  soils — 
To  guard  against  bad  kinds  of  grass  and  noxious  weed*, 
plant  such  lields  with  potatoes  as  are  infested  with  them. 
Be  careful  that  seed  grain,  and  grass  seed  are  clean,  and 
free  from  all  foul  seeds.  Pull  out  the  docks,  &c.  upon 
mowing  grounds,  before  they  go  to  seed.  Remove  the 
thistle,  burdock,  and  every  noxious  weed  from  fences, 
tc.  (For  the  saving  of  weeds  see  manures.)  Suffer 
no  old  field  to  lie  waste,  as  a  nursery  for  weeds ;  the 
expense  of  ploughing  will  bear  no  proportion  to  the  af- 
ter expense  of  weeding.  Weed  crops  with  the  plough 
and  hoe  ;  not  after  the  weeds  are  grown,  but  as  soon  at 
they  appear.  It  is  supposed  that  the  expense  of  weed- 
ing wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  flax  and  hemp,  would  be 
abundantly  paid  in  increase  of  grain:  for,  generally 
speaking,  any  given  quantity  of  weeds  growing  with  a 
crop  lessens  its  product,  in  proportion  to  the  w^eight  of 
the  green  weeds  with  that  of  the  growing  crop.  After 
haying  is  over,  all  fern,  or  brakes  ought  to  be  cut,  not 
oniy  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  them,  but  of  increas- 
ing manure,  by  applying  them  as  litter.  If  cut  while 
the  sap  is  in,  and  left  to  rot  on  the  ground,  they  will 
gr'^atiy  improve  it.  Sheep  are  much  better  than  any 
other  creature  for  destroying  weeds,  by  pasturing. 

DRAINING. 

A  point  of  importance  in  good  farming,  but  in  which 
our  country  is  defective,  is  the  draining ofwot  and  marshy 
ground*.     Much  of   our  best  Und  is  not  only  rendere4 


FALLOWING.  65 

useless  by  this  neglect,  but  it  often  becomes  the  local 
cause  of  sickness  and  death. 

Various  methods  of  draining  have  been  suggested  by 
ingenious  men,  which  are  applicable  to  various  soils.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Burgess,  that  if  the  system  was 
thoroughly  understood,  and  universally  practised  by  ihe 
farmers  of  Rhode-Island,  it  would  add  one  third  to  the 
value  of  the  lands  of  the  state  ;  and  by  many  intelligent 
men,  it  has  been  calculated,  that  should  all  the  marshes, 
and  meadow  lands  of  New-England,  be  drained  and  em- 
banked, where  necessary,  that  she  could  sustain  twice 
her  present  population. 

Ifthe  drainis  sma.i,  a  moderate  quantity  of  oarth, grass, 
or  other  matter  easily  cicgs  it,  and  obstructs  the  passage 
of  the  water  :  whereas,  it  it  be  large,  exactl}^  the  re- 
verse takes  place.  If  the  di  ain  is  wide,  and  the  earth 
taken  from  it  removed  to  a  distance,  neither  cattle  nor 
frost  can  fiii  it  up  ;  but  in  spite  of  the  trampling  of  the 
one,  and  the  heaving  of  the  other,  a  hollow  musi  sliii  re- 
main. 

The  Farmer's  Assistant  gives  tlie  following  method  of 
draining  bog-meadows  effectually  :  First  run  a  ditch 
through  the  middle,  and  draw  off  as  much  of  its  waters 
in  this  way  as  possible.  Where  the  mcddow  is  very 
wet  and  niir}'^,  commence  at  the  lorcest  part  ofthe  ground 
where  the  outlet  should  be  ;  and  thence  carry  the  ditch 
into  the  meadow,  sinking  it  all  the  way,  as  low  as  Avill 
barely  give  the  waters  a  current  to  run  off  ;  and  the 
deeper  this  ditch  can  be  sunk  the  better.  Then  turn  a 
ditch  proportionally  deep  all  round  the  edge  ofthe  bog, 
for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off  all  the  springs.  Then 
cross  ditches  are  to  be  made,  in  number  and  size  propor- 
tionate to  the  extent  ofthe  bog,  and  ofthe  size  of  (he 
middle  and  surrounding  ditches.  Generally  speaking  the 
deeper  and  larger  the  ditches,  the  fewer  cross-ditches 
need  be  made.  It  should  be  remembered,  that  bog  lands 
will  settle  down  very  much,  after  draining  ;  for  which 
due  allowance  ought  to  be  made,  in  regard  to  the  depth 
of  the  ditches. 

To  drain  swamps,  ditches  ought  to  be  of  size  and  depth 
proportionate  to  the  extent  of  the  swamp  ;  and  the  quan- 
tity of  water  to  be  carried  off.  Those  round  the  edges 
of  the  swamp  ought  to  be  so    plac«d  as  to    r«ceiv«  afl 


56  FALLOWING. 

the  water  from  the  springs  which  commonly  run  in  on 
every  side  ;  or,  it'  convenient,  they  should  be  so  placed 
as  to  cut  off  the  springs,  by  receiving  theminto  the  ditch. 
The  months  of  August  and  September  are  best  for  this 
work.  The  proper  proportions  for  these  kind  of  ditch- 
es are,  to  be  three  times  as  wide  at  the  top  as  they  are 
at  the  bottom,  and  a  little  more  than  half  as  deep  as 
they  are  wide.  To  prevent  their  falling  in,  it  is  advise- 
able  to  sow  some  strong-rooted  grass  on  the  sides.  The 
most  expeditious,  effectual,  and  economical  mode,  where 
the  ground  is  not  too  miry,  will  be  to  use  a  plough  and 
ox-shovel.  It  is  supposed  that  two  men,  a  boy,  and  two 
yoke  of  oxen,  will  accomplish  more  in  a  day,  than  six 
men  with  only  spades  and  shovels.  With  the  scraper, 
all  the  inequalities  of  the  ground,  upon  the  borders  of 
the  ditch,  can  be  conveniently  filled  up. 

Covered  drains  being  considerably  more  expensive 
thnn  open  ones,  we  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  describe 
them  here,  but  refer  the  readerto  the  Complete  Grazier 
or  Plough  Boy,  2d  Vol.  No.  35-6,  for  a  full  account  of 
them. 

IRRIGATION. 

The  advantages  of  water  to  grass  lands,  are  these : 
it  preserves  a  favourable  degree  of  temperature  ;  im- 
proves the  crop,  by  the  nourishing  substances  it  con- 
veys ;  destroys  weeds ;  and,  as  a  mere  element  it  is  ben- 
Ciicial,  more  especially  in  dry  seasons.  It  contributes 
so  much  to  their  fertiiization,  that  it  is  rather  surprising, 
the  pr.ictice  ofirrigatioii  lias  not  been  more  generally" 
adopted. 

The  common  principle;^  of  irrigation  are, 

1st.  Such  command  of  water,  as  will  cover  the  largest 
surface  with  the  least  lai^  '>nr  and  expense. 

2d.  Mud  Iv  water  (the  effect  of  loosened  soil  and  heavy 
roins)  is  most  favourable  lo  vegetation,  because,  be-^i.les 
gi\irg  the  necessary  mci-ture,  it  furnishes  a  considera- 
ble uoriion  of  alluvial  matter. 

3d.  Water  charged  with  sand  or  gravel,  or  very  hot 
or  very  cold,  is  unfavourable  to  vegi^ation,  and  ought 
not  to  hf>  employed,  until,  by  standing  in  reservoirs,  it 
depcs't^  thfse  injurioas  matters,  i;i  the  one  case,  and  in 
the  other,  reiiuires  tke  temperiiture  ©f  the  atmosphere. 


FALLOWING.  57 

4th.  Clay  and  calcarious  soils,  require  less  watering 
than  others. 

5th.  Irrigation  is  of  less  importance  in  northern  than 
in  southern  latitudes  :  and, 

6th.  In  cold  climates,  or  in  situations  of  much  eleva- 
tion, irrigation  is  most  usefuilj  employed  in  the  spring 
and  autumn ;  and  in  hot  climates  and  sandy  soils  in  the 
summer. 

Where  a  good  head  of  water  can  be  made  without  too 
great  an  expense  ;  or  where  a  brook,  or  part  of  a  river, 
can  be  so  diverted  from  its  course,  as  to  be  made  to 
spread  its  waters  over  the  neighbouring  grass  grounds, 
it  should  be  attended  to,  as  a  matter  of  no  small  impor- 
tance. The  means  of  watering  the  ground,  or  of  taking 
it  off,  should  be  completely  under  controul ;  for,  if  too 
much  be  suffered  to  run  on,  it  may  do  more  hurt  than 
good.  The  quantity  should  be  proportioned  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil;  as  sandy  grounds  require  more,  and 
stiff  soils  less.  The  channels  should  be  so  made  as  to 
carry  the  water  to  every  part,  except  where  the  ground 
is  naturally  wet.  The  main  channel  should  just  have 
descent  enough  to  cause  the  water  to  run  ;  and  the  late- 
ral branches  should  be  run  in  such  directions  as  that  the 
descent  be  very  moderate,  and  at  the  same  time  convey 
the  water  to  every  part  of  the  ground.  Sometimes  it 
is  necessary  to  carry  off  the  surplus  water  by  other 
channels,  where  the  ground  has  little  hollow  through  it. 
When  the  weather  is  hot,  the  water  should  be  taken 
off  the  ground.  The  night,  and  days  which  are  cool 
and  cloudy,  are  the  best  times  for  applying  it.  In  the 
spring,  it  should  not  be  applied  till  the  ground  is  some- 
what dry;  and  after  the  grass  begins  to  start  let  the 
quantity  be  diminished,  and  let  it  also  be  stopped  during* 
rainy  weather.  When  the  grass  is  pretty  well  grown, 
no  water  should  be  applicfl,  except  in  cases  of  drought. 
After  taking  off  the  second  crop,  the  water  may  be 
thrown  on  more  plentifully  :  but  it  mist  be  taken  off  some 
time  before  the  winter  frost  com'nences.  Mr.  Van 
Rensselaer  considers  a  month,  a  suficient  time  to  let  it 
remain  on  in  the  fall. 

It  is  the  easiest  and  cheapest  mode  of  fertilii'Ing  poor 
land.  It  promotes  a  perpetual  fertility  without  tiie  ex- 
pense oi  manare.  It  may  be  made  to  vield  t'le  greatest^ 
6* 


58  FALLOWING. 

possible  proflucts,  both  in  hay  and  pasturage.  It  will 
greatly  increase  the  means  of  the  farmer  to  multiply 
stock,  and  thus  enrich  the  other  lands  with  manure.  It 
is  within  the  power  of  almost  every  farmer  to  derive 
some  advantao^e  from  irrigation. 

FLOODING. 

It  differs  from  irrigation,  in  which  the  water  ought 
constantly  to  be  in  ajlowltig  state^  whereas  in  the  pro- 
cess of  flooding,  it  is  wholly,  or  nearly  stagnant. 

AVhere  swamp-land  is  to  be  cleared,  and  it  can  be 
flooded,  by  miking  a  dam  at  the  outlet,  at  a  small  ex- 
pense, it  may  be  a  matter  of  economy,  as  it  will  tend  to 
destroy  the  growth  of  wood.  This  may  also  be  per- 
formed on  low  meadows  to  kill  the  grass,  if  it  be  bad,  in 
order  to  introduce  better.  If  the  water  contains  a  rich 
sediment,  it  will  enrich  low  meadows  to  flood  them  du- 
ring winter.  But  by  covering  large  tracts  of  country 
with  water,  in  cold,  and  still  more  in  the  warm  seasons 
of  the  year,  it  must  render  the  climate  moist  and  un- 
wholesome. 

MANURES. 

In  the  theory,  as  well  as  in  the  practice,  of  agricul- 
ture, the  subject  of  manures  is  exceedingly  important. 
Every  operation  of  husbandry,  every  preparation  of 
land  is  calculated  to  render  manure  eflicacious  in  its  ap- 
plication. It  is  in  vain  that  the  soil  is  composed  of  the 
best  substances,  in  tlie  best  proportions  ;  that  when  so 
composerl,  it  is  kept  in  the  best  possible  condition  for 
vegetation,  unless  manure  be  added  to  it  of  such  a  kind, 
and  in  such  a  state,  as  is  favourable  to  the  growth  of 
plants.  In  tine,  it  is  that  part  both  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  agriculture  upon  which  every  other  may  be 
said  to  depend.  The  ploughing  and  harrowing  of  land  ; 
the  exposure  of  it  to  the  frost  of  winter;  irrigation  and 
draining,  are  all  regarded  as  important,  only  as  far  as 
they  adapt  it  to  the  reception  of  manure,  and  are  calcu- 
lated to  render  its  uses   in  vegetation  more  serviceable. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  the  substances  capable  of  being 
made  use  of  as  manure,  are  extremely  numerous,  and 
of  dilTercnt  natures  and  properties.  We  will  confine 
ourselves  to  those  of  most  importance  to  the  farmers  of 


FALLOWING.  59 

this  country,  and  commence  with  dung  of  neat-cattle. 
This  is  a  cool,  mild  and  oily  substance ;  and  is,  there- 
fore, most  suitable  for  warm,  sandy,  and  gravelly  soils. 
It  tends  to  prevent  the  soil's  becoming-  too  dry,  and  the 
plants  on  it  from  being  parched  for  want  of  moisture.  It 
is  considered  less  valuable  than  the  dung  of  swine  and 
sheep,  but  more  so  than  that  of  horses.  Where  animals 
chew  the  cud,  the  dung  is  so  thoroughly  putrified,  that  it 
may  be  incorporated  with  the  soil  without  any  previous 
fermentation  in  a  dunghill,  better  than  any  other  kind 
of  dung ;  but  on  many  accounts,  a  mixture  of  hot  and 
cold,  of  dry  and  moist  putrescent  substances  in  the  same 
heap  is  very  advantageous.  Cow  dung  alone,  is  more  ea- 
sily dissolved  by  rain  than  any  other  dung.  The  quality 
of  the  dung  of  animals,  will  in  a  great  measure  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  richness  or  poverty  of  its  food.  It  is 
also  supposed  that  the  dung  of  fat  animals  will  be  more 
serviceable  than  that  of  lean  ones.  The  dung  of  lean 
hard-working  cattle,-^nd  young  creatures  when  poorly 
fed  is  quite  inferior. 

Horse  dimg^  is  the  poorest  animal  manure,  the  hottest 
of  any,  and  the  most  apt  to  excite  a  sudden  fermenta- 
tion. If  suffered  to  lie  in  a  heap  till  it  becomes  tho- 
roughly heated,  it  assumes  a  whitish,  or  mouldy  colour, 
and  is  then  of  but  little  value.  It  is  difficult  to  give  it 
age,  without  mixing  it  with  other  substances.  If  applied 
without  mixture  it  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible. 
It  is  most  saitable  for  cold,  wet,  and  stiff  soils.  For 
raising  potatoes,  from  its  heating  quality,  for  some  soils 
it  may  be  used  alone,  nearly  fresh  from  the  stables,  as 
it  will  ferment  in  the  ground  and  be  of  benetit  to  the 
potatoe  crop.  The  richest  is  that  of  stable  kept  horses, 
well  fed  with  hay  and  grain,  and  this  is  greatly  increas- 
ed in  richness  and  utility,  if  urine  and  straw  mix  with  it. 
A  mixture  of  horse  an  cow  dung  is  very  proper  for 
land  that  is  neither  too  light  nor  too  stiff.  Horse  dung 
is  a  much  stronger  manure  than  it  is  supposed  to  be  by 
those  whose  constant  })ractice  is  to  suffer  it  to  be  spoil- 
ed by  over-heating  in  the  heaps;  by  which  it  looses 
from  50  to  75  per  cent,  of  its  value.  The  diligent  and 
attentive  farmer  should  giiard  against  such  proHigate 
waste  of  property.  The  remedy  is  easy,  viz.  by  never 
allowing    the   dung    to  accumulate    in  any  considerable 


60  FALL0WI?7«. 

quantity  at  the  stable  doors.  It  should  frequently  he  re- 
moved and  thrown  over  that  part  of  the  yard  where 
the  dung  from  the  neat  cattle  is  thrown :  or,  used  as  an 
ing-redient  composts,  by  its  quick  and  strong  fermenta- 
tion, it  has  an  excellent  effect,  speedily  dissolving  other 
substances  mixed  with  it. 

Hog  dung^  is  a  very  rich  manure,  and  so  cold  as  to 
ferment  very  slowly.  A  mixture  of  hog,  cattle  and 
horse  dung  is  therefore  very  advantageous,  as  the  one 
corrects  the  defects  of  the  other,  and  prevents  the  fer- 
menting process  from  going  too  rapidly  forward.  These 
substances  to  be  managed  to  the  best  advantage,  should 
be  placed,  layer  above  layer;  almost  every  tiine  the 
stables  are  cleaned  out.  If  a  little  earth  can  be  put  be- 
tween each  layer,  so  much  the  better. 

Hog  dung  resists  the  ill  effects  of  drought  remarka- 
bly. It  is  so  strong  a  manure,  that  it  answers  well 
where  mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  earth,  weeds, 
straw  or  other  substances,  and  in  this  way  it  is  better 
than  any  thing  else  for  potatoes.  Used  alone  it  is  ex- 
cellent on  meadow  and  pasture  ground.  It  is  the  best 
kind  of  dung  for  trees.  Hot  sands  and  gravel  are  par- 
ticularly benetited  bj'  it.  IS'o  dung  yields  its  virtue  so 
readily  as  this ;  bnt  none  looses  it  so  soon  by  bad  man- 
agement. The  time  of  laying  on  should  be  caret^uUy 
regarded  ;  a  rain  will  wash  it  into  the  ground  very  fast, 
and  a  drj"^  wind  will  carry  away  much  of  its  efficacy :  it 
should  therefore  be  covered  as  soon  as  possible. 

It  is  almost  incredible  how  great  a  quantity  of  good 
manure  may  be  obtained,  by  supplying  a  hog  stye  with 
rubish  of  all  kinds  to  mix  with  the  dung.  The  month 
of  August  is  a  good  time  to  cart  in  turf  and  other  good 
earths  and  cover  the  vegetables  in  hog  pens;  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  heat  and  warm  rains.  In  this  busi- 
ness neither  time  nor  expense  ought  to  he  spared. 

Sheep  dv.ng^  is  next  in  value  to  hog  dung.  It  is  suita- 
ble for  all  soils,  but  being  of  a  hot  nature,  it  is  most  pro- 
per for  cold,  heavy  lands,  especially  clays. 

Folding  sheep  on  fields,  which  are  ploughed  up,  is  a 
very  good  practice;  as  in  this  wa}'  the  land  receives  ail 
the  manure  that  is  made  from  their  dung  and  urine, 
without  the  trouble  of  previous  preparation,  carting, 
fcc.     Bat  foiJiiig  sheep    on   small    pieces    of  ground  is 


FALLOWING.  61 

now  g-enerally  supposed  to  do  the  sheep  as  much  injury  as  it 
will  benefit  the  land.  When  folded  in  a  large  field,  they 
choose  a  fresh  place  to  lie  dovvn  every  night,  and  receive  no 
injury  from  the  breath  and  smell  of  the  excrements  of  each' 
other.  It  is  said,  that  in  this  way  100  sheep  will,  in 
one  season,  sufficiently  manure  a  fallow  of  8  acres  for  a 
good  crop  of  wheat.  The  manure  thus  made  should  be 
frequently  ploughed  or  harrowed  under,  to  prevent 
much  of  its  evaporation.  It  is  reckoned  by  some  that 
a  sheep  will  manure  one  rod  square  in  about  a  fortnight. 
Let  a  slight  shed  be  made  in  a  sheep  pasture,  and  under 
this  cart  a  layer  of  sand  or  other  earth  about  4  or  5 
inches  thick :  The  sheep  will  resort  to  this  for  shade  if 
it  be  the  only  one  in  the  field.  As  they  saturate  the 
earth  thus  carted  in,  bring  in  more  and  spread  it  over 
the  other,  and  keep  repeating  this,  until  the  mass  is 
raised  so  high  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  cart  it  off.  A 
similar  practice  might  be  followed  with  horses  and  neat 
cattle.  In  winter,  the  buildinaf  appr- updated  to  sheep, 
should  have  the  floor  covered  a  foot  and  a  half  deep 
with  sand,  loam,  or  other  earth ;  for  the  sheep  to  feed 
and  lie  on.  Every  week  or  two,  if  the  weather  will 
permit,  a  fresh  quantity  of  earth  to  the  depth  of  3  or  4 
inches  should  be  added. 

Poultry  dung,  tends  much  to  facilitate  vegetation,  and 
is  abundantly  quicker  in  its  operation  than  the  dung  of 
animals  which  feed  on  the  leaves  of  plants.  Liquid  ma- 
nure, made  of  this  dung,  may  be  applied  as  a  top  dress- 
ing with  great  advantage,  to  promote  the  early  vegeta- 
tion of  the  seeds  of  onions,  carrots,  cabbages,  &,c.  It 
must  not  touch  the  leaves  of  the  plants.  Goose  dung  is 
of  great  service  in  the  improvement  of  meadows.  Sheep 
thrive  best  on  pastures  which  have  been  manured  with 
it.  The  false  notion  that  the  dung  of  geese  occasions 
barrenness,  has  probably  arisen  from  its  laying  too  thick, 
for  it  is  of  a  very  hot  and  fiery  nature  :  but  if  spread 
thin  it  will  prove  a  valuable  manure,  especially  if  mix- 
ed with  cooling  earth,  and  left  in  a  heap  awhile.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  any  other  water-fowl.  In  general 
it  is  best  to  mix  the  dung  of  poultry  with  other  substan- 
ces before  appUed  to  the  soil. 

Urine,  next  to  dung,   is    perhaps  the   rao«t    vaJuable 
and  important  of  all  manures.     It  should    be    used  as 


6fi  FALLOWINa. 

fresh  as  possible.  If  not  mixed  with  solid  matter,  it 
should  be  diiuled  with  water,  as,  when  pure,  it  con- 
tains too  much  animal  matter  to  form  a  proper  lluid  nou- 
rishment for  arsorption  by  the  roots  oi  plants.  It  can 
be  employed  with  great  benefit  both  on  meadows  and 
arable  lands.  When  applied  to  meadows,  it  should  be 
Sprinkled  during  the  winter  and  early  in  the  spring, 
when  the  rains  will  wash  it  into  the  soil. 

In  some  places,  stable  floors  are  made  with  clay,  or 
paved  with  stone,  with  a  little  descent  from  the  cattle's 
heads  ;  or  a  light  descending  floor  of  plank,  and  a  wator- 
tight  gutter,  that  conveys  the  urine  from  all  the  stallt 
to  a  cistern,  which  is  supplied  with  a  pump.  The  fluid 
is  conveyed  and  applied  to  the  land  b}^  means  of  a  cask, 
which  is  mounted  on  wheels,  being  filled  at  the  purnp. 
Or  it  can  be  collected  in  a  pit  and  filled  by  paiis  with 
long  handles.  It  may  also  be  saved  under  the  floors  of 
the  stalls,  by  a  large  quantity  of  earth  laid  there  to  ab- 
sorb it;  or  by  a  sufficient  quantity  of  litter  laid  under 
the  cattle  for  the  purpose;  ana  by  throwing  earth  in  the 
puddles  which  form  from  dnn^  heaps,  k,c.  in  the  yard. 
It  would  be  a  most  important  improvement,  to  dig  a  pit 
contiguous  to  the  feeding  stall,  of  a  size  adapted  to  the 
number  of  creatures  fed  ;  this  should  be  filled  with  good 
loam,  and  all  the  urine  conducted  into  it.  It  is  surpri- 
sing how  large  a  quantity  can  thus  be  enriched  in  one 
winter.  The  pit  should  be  covered  to  exclude  the  rain 
and  frost.  A  barn  cellar  would  furnish  the  most  conve- 
nient place.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Pickering,  that  for 
the  want  of  such  a  reservoir  for  saving  tbe  urine  of  our 
cattle,  more  than  half  of  our  winter  made  manure,  (and 
this  is  the  farmer's  chief  dependance)  is  lost.  Urine  and 
the  draining  from  the  dunghill,  are  much  better  than 
dung  for  truit  trees,  as  penetrating  better  to  their  roots, 
and  not  harboring  insects.  This  manure,  forces  newly 
planted  cabbages  in  a  most  remarkable  manner. 

Siraxv^  is  very  valuable,  not  only  in  consequence  of 
its  own  substance,  but  from  the  quantity  of  liquid  mat- 
ter it  absorbs.  B}'  carelessness  in  reaping,  perhaps  one 
fourth  part  is  left  upon  the  ground,  which  is  generally 
wasted  by  rains  and  storms.  When  straw  is  used  for  lit- 
ter, either  ibr  hogs,  or  cattle,  or  horses,  it  is  generally 
aJiowed  that  one  ton  (the  usual  product  of  one   acre  ©f 


FALLOWING.  6S 

wheat  or  rye)  will  produce  four  tons  of  manure  ;  this 
will  dress  one  acre  of  corn  or  potatoes  in  the  hiil,  and 
thus  give  a  profit  on  the  crops  of  10  or  15  dollars; 
whereas  5  dollars  may  be  considered  as  a  fair  market 
price  for  feeding  :  leaving  a  balance  in  favor  of  littering 
of  five  to  ten  dollars,  besides  the  warmth  afl'orded  the 
cattle ;  allowing  the  increased  value  of  the  land  to  pay 
for  carting,  &;c.  Straw  fermented,  is  a  more  managea- 
ble substance  and  furnishes  more  manure  for  a  single 
crop,  than  unfermented.  In  the  latter  state,  it  decom- 
poses more  siowly,  and  consequently,  though  its  influ- 
ence will  be  more  lasting,  yet  it  produces  at  first,  lesg 
effect.  To  derive  the  full  advantage  from  it,  it  ought 
to  be  hauled  out  before  the  substance  has  been  wasted 
by  rain ;  by  the  sun,  and  by  the  wind ;  and  to  be  buried 
in  the  earth  as  soon  after  as  possible. 

Stubble.  On  a  light  soil  the  stubble  should  be  plough- 
ed in  deep  immediately  after  the  crop  is  taken  off.  The 
stubble  with  the  weeds  will  be  equal  to  a  moderate 
manuring.  To  pass  a  roller  before  the  plough  will  fa- 
cilitate the  work.  On  a  stiff  soil  it  may  be  best  to  burn 
the  stubbie  and  plough  in  the  ashes  with  a  shallow  fur- 
row. The  heat  given  to  the  ground  is  much  better  than 
a  larger  quantity  of  ashes.  In  burning  it,  the  danger 
which  is  to  be  apprehended  from  the  spreading  of  the 
flames  may,  perhaps,  be  obviated  by  tracing  a  furrow 
round  the  field,  and  settiag  fire  to  the  stubble  on  the  in- 
ner edge  of  the  furrow.  Or  stubbie  and  the  under- 
growth may  be  rii<»  v-i,  carted  into  the  hog  pen,  or  barn- 
yard, or  even  housed  for  liit^^r  for  the  winter.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  value  of  it  used  in  this  way,  and 
when  left  to  waste  on  the  ground,  will  not  admit  oi'  com- 
parison. If  firmers  feel  no  disposition  to  avail  them- 
selvi^s  of  such  resouT-ces  to  fertilize  their  lands,  let  them 
be  cautious  to  cut  thoir  grain  so  close  to  the  ground,  as 
to  leave  no  stubbie  that  can  be  mown  or  employed  to 
any  particular  use. 

Paring  and  Burning. — This  process  is  particularly 
adapted  to  the  improvement  of  soils  which  are  overrun 
by  the  roots  of  vegt  ^hies  that  cnnnot  be  destroyed  by 
the  common  methods  of  cultivation  ;  and  on  stiff  clays, 
and  S(,ci  a-s  contain  too  much  vegetable  matter.  There 
is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  this  method  of 


64  FALLowirrc. 

managing"  land.  The  prevailing  opinion  of  writers  how- 
ever is  in  favour  of  the  process.  We  think  that  many 
of  our  countrymen,  possessing  low  damp  meadows,  free 
from  stone,  and  abounding  with  moss,  dwarf  shrubby 
plants,  tough  grasses,  &c.  may  resort  to  burning  the  sur- 
face with  benefit,  provided  it  be  conducted  with  caution. 

The  late  Mr.  iNicholson  of  New-York  in  his  prize  es- 
say has  thus  briefly  described  the  operation. 

When  the  ground  is  in  a  good  sward  of  grass  let  it  be 
carefully  turned  over  with  the  plough  ;  the  irons  of 
which  should  be  well  sharpened.  Let  the  plough  run 
about  three  inches  deep.  Then  cross-plough  wiih  a 
sharp  coulter,  and  the  sward  will  all  be  cut  into  squares 
of  ten  or  twelve  inches.  Set  these  square  chunks  up 
edgvvays,  by  leaning  two  together,  and  they  will  soon 
dry.  When  well  dried,  build  a  part  of  them  up  in  the 
form  of  little  ovens,  at  the  dist^mce  of  about  eighteen 
feet  each  way.  These  are  to  have  a  little  opening  or 
door,  at  a  common  windward  side,  for  the  air  to  en- 
ter and  another  opening  above,  for  the  smoke  to 
pass  off.  On  some  dry  day,  when  the  wind  is  fair 
for  blowing  into  the  holes  beiow,  place  some  straw  or 
other  dry  rubbish  into  the  hfles,  and  set  fire  to  it.  As 
«oon  as  the  fires  have  got  fully  going  in  each  of  the 
heaps,  let  the  holes  in  the  tops  be  stopped  up,  for  the 
purpose  of  retaining  the  smoke  and  keep  gradually  buiid- 
ing  up  the  heaps  as  the  fire  penetrates  them,  until  all 
tl^e  chunks  of  earth  are  piled  up  round  them;  and  when 
the  heaps  have  fully  burned,  and  sufficiently  cooled, 
they  are  to  be  evenly  spread  over  the  ground,  and 
ploughed  in. 

We  subjoin  Mr.  Cobbett's  method  of  buriiijig  earth. 

Make  a  cricle  or  an  oblong  square  ;  cut  sods  and 
bui:d  a  wail  all  round  three  feet  thick  and  tour  feet 
hi^h,  then  ligb.t  a  fire  in  the  middle  wiih  straw,  dry 
sticks,  &.C  exieiiding  it  all  over  the  bottom  of  the  pit  ; 
keep  addmg  light  iuei  at  first,  then  rubbish  wood,  till 
there  is*  a  good  l;ed  of  coals.  .  Then  put  on  the  driest  of 
the  ciods,  taking  care  to  keep  the  smoke  m.  Continue  thus 
for  a  day  or  tvvo,  when  you  may  dig  out  the  earth  any 
where  about  the  kiln  and  fling  on.  Put  your  finger  in- 
to the  top  of  the  heap  here  and  there  ;  if  you  find  the 
fire  very  near,  throw  on  more  earth;  not  loo'much  at  a 


FALLOWING.  65 

time,  for  it  deadens  the  fire.  The  ashes  (or  torrified 
earth)  will  he  cool  enough  to  remove  ia  a  week,  peat 
or  bog  eartli  may  be  burnt  or  bog  earth  may  be  burnt 
in  the  same  way,  or  dry^  as  in  the  paring  and  burning 
method.  Some  only  kindle  a  lire  and  lay  on  dry  soils 
at  lirst,  and  when  the  whole  is  under  good  way,  throw 
on  the  earth,  (subsoil,  fcc.)  to  be  torritiel,  till  the  heap 
is  sufficiently  large.  This  manure  applied  to  cabbages, 
ruta-baga,  Indian  corn,  and  buckwheat  produces  great 
effect. 

Ploughing  in  Green  Crops,  is  considered  beneficial  on 
all  light  soils.  By  repeating  this  culture,  poor  or  worn 
out  land  ma}'^  be  made  rich.  It  is  strongly  recommend- 
ed for  all  places  where  it  is  difficult  to  procure  manure  ; 
where  g3q)sum  will  not  assist  the  soil,  or  where  it  can- 
not be  had  without  too  much  expense.  Buckwheat,  rye, 
millet,  pease,  oats,  and  turnips  are  all  considered  suita- 
ble lor  tiiis  purpose.  Perhaps  buckwheat  is  the  least 
suitable  of  any  of  them.  Two  crops  of  some  of  them 
can  be  ploughed  in  before  sowing  wmter  grain.  They 
must  always  be  ploughed  in  when  in  flower,  or  at  the 
time  the  flov/er  is  beginning  to  appear.  To  prevent 
the  plough  from  choaking,  if  the  ground  is  free  from 
rocks,  a  roller  should  be  p.assed  over  the  crop,  in  the 
direction  the  plough  is  to  pass,  where  this  instrument  is 
wanting,  the  back  of  the  harrow  can  be  used,  giving  it 
additional  weight  if  necessary.  In  about  three  weeks 
the  ground  will  be  ready  for  another  crop,  which  can 
be  sowed  upon  the  furrow. 

Mr.  Pomeroy,  of  Massachusetts,  considers  rye,  supe- 
rior to  any  thing  within  our  reach  for  this  purpose.  In 
order  to  ensure  a  sutlicient  growth,  in  season  to  plough 
in  for  Indian  corn  and  most  of  our  root  crops,  rye 
shoaid  be  sown  the  begip.r.ing  or  by  the  middle  of  Au- 
gust, and  much  thicker  than  when  intended  for  a  crop 
of  grain.  If  it  gets  too  forward  before  winter,  it  should 
be  fed  down  with  light  stock  or  mown.  AVinter  rye, 
sown  early  in  the  spring,  grows  rapidly,  and  will  generr 
ally  arrive  at  sufficient  stature  in  season  to  be  t-irned 
in  as  manure  for  ruta  baga.  Rye.  plovighed  in  when  iii 
full  flower,  and  millet  sown,  which  it  will  briiSg  forward 
wlih  great  luxuriance,  rnd  that  in  its  most  succulent 
state  turned  in  for  wheat,  may  be  one  of  the  best  fal- 
7 


CO  .  FALLOWING. 

low  preparations  for  it  that  can  be  devised  ;  and  is  prob- 
ably the  cheapest  and  most  convenient  process  to  res- 
tore an  exhausted  soil.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be 
considered,  that  gypsum  acts  more  powerfully  on  soils 
thus  prepared. 

Gypsum There  is  not  any  manure  concerning  which 

the  reports  of  experimenters  have  been  so  contradicto- 
ry as  in  the  case  of  plaster  of  Paris.  Its  advantages  are  un- 
doubtedly great.  Plaster  is  more  useful  on  dry  than  oa 
wet  soils,  particularly  on  gravelly  or  sandy  loams,  and  in 
some  measure  prevents  the  effects  of  drought.  Its  dis- 
covery has  almost  doubled  the  value  of  land  in  certain 
places.  It  is  supposed  to  be  useful  on  drained  clayey 
soils,  preventing  their  baking.  It  seems  probable  also, 
that  it  is  best  fOrland  in  a  state  of  sward,  though  it  is 
usefully  employed  on  others. 

The  following  are  the  conclusions  of  Chancellor  Liv- 
ingston and  Mr.  Logan  after  various  trials.  That  there 
is  no  difference  between  European  and  American  gyp- 
sum. It  acts  as  an  immediate  manure  to  grass.  One 
dressing  will  continue  in  force  for  several  succeeding 
crops.  It  does  not  produce  any  remarkable  effects  used 
as  a  top  dressing  for  grain.  On  stiff  clays  the  increase 
of  vegetation  will  not  pay  the  expense  of  the  m.anure. 
It  is  uniformly  beneficial  to  Indian  corn,  unless  in  very 
rich  or  very  wet  lands.  Beneficial  to  flax  on  dry,  poor, 
sandy  land.  Particularly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  clo- 
ver in  all  dry  soils,  or  even  in  wet  soils  in  a  dry  sea- 
son. That  it  has  no  effect  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea — 
but  from  the  successful  use  of  planter  near  the  sea 
coast  in  the  state  of  Maine,  on  Long  Island,  and  near 
the  salt  water  in  this  state,  by  Mr.  Moses  Brown,  the 
editors  unite  in  opinion,  with  many  others,  that  its  ope- 
ration depends  more  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  or  quali- 
ty of  the  article,  than  on  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
contiguous  to  the  sea  coast. 

Gypsum  generally  benefits  all  broad  leaved  plants — 
such  as  corn,  potatoes,  peas,  clover  and  most  of  the 
grasses.  It  is  also  good  for  young  fruit  trees.  On  gras- 
ses, the  best  time  to  sow  it  is  when  vegetation  starts  in 
the  spring,  at  the  rate  of  1  bushel  per  acre,  and  the  same 
quantity  immediately^  after  haying.  On  corn  and  pota- 
toes, it  is  generally  applied  to  the  growing  plant  j    oth- 


FALLOWING.  67 

ers  recommend  that  for  corn  it  be  sowed  broad  cast,  at 
the  rate  of  one  or  one  and  a  half  bushel  per  acre,  pre- 
vious to  the  last  ploughing.  Plaster  is  commonly  used 
upon  different  plans,  varying  according  to  its  objects. 
If  designed  to  last  for  a  term  of  years,  it  is  strewed,  at 
the  rate  of  three,  four,  five,  and  even  six  bushels  to  the 
acre  ;  others  think  an  annual  application  like  the  above 
better.  In  general  its  effects  are  not  seen  till  the  sec- 
ond 3'^ear.  Some  recommend  mixing  one  bushel  of  damp 
ashes  to  two  bushels  of  plaster,  when  sowing  it,  to  pre- 
vent its  flying. 

Plaster  applied  to  seeds  of  Indian  corn,  &.c.  after  be- 
ing soaked  in  some  fertilizing  liquor,  such  as  a  mixture 
of  old  urine,  lye  of  wood  ashes,  or  strong  soap-suds, 
with  a  solution  of  saltpetre,  and  sown  or  planted  imme- 
diatelj^,  proves  profitable. 

That  the  effect  of  plaster  will  be  continued  indefinite- 
ly, under  a  constant  removal  of  the  whole  crop  from 
the  soil,  surpasses  belief.  It  can  scarcely  fail  to  ex- 
haust, at  length,  the  productive  powers  of  the  earth. 

A  ton  of  plaster  will  make  from  twenty  to  twentj'^-five 
bushels.  To  know  its  quality,  a  quantity  of  the  powder 
when  heated  in  a  dry  pot  over  a  fire,  emits  a  sulphu- 
reous smell.  If  it  briskly  bubbles  or  seems  to  boil,  it  is 
good,  if  but  little,  it  is  indifferent ;  if  it  remains  an  inert 
mass,  like  sand,  it  is  worthless.  Before  it  is  pounded, 
if  good,  the  finger  nail  commonly  makes  an  impression 
upon  its  surface,  and  it  is  not  gritty. 

Lirne^  is  of  extensive  utility  for  manureing  lands  both 
in  its  native  state,  and  after  it  has  been  burnt.  It  is 
most  useful  on  stiff  clays  and  cold  loams.  Light  soils  re- 
quire a  much  less  quantity.  It  will  reduce  peat  and  turf 
to  a  mere  vegetable  earth.  It  will  produce  a  high  de- 
gree of  fermentation,  in  all  soils  which  require  it ;  and 
this  is  essential  to  their  productiveness,  in  every 
country  and  climate.  The  best  lime  for  applying  lime 
is,  when  land  is  newly  broken  up,  after  laying  a  long 
time  in  grass.  But  it  is  to  little  purpose  to  write  on 
this  article,  as  lime  is  so  scarce  and  dear  in  most  parts  of 
our  country,  it  cannot  be  often  used  for  manure. 

Trials  of  lime  in  this  country  have  been  quite  limited, 
and  confined  mostly  to  the  middle  states,  particularly 
Pennsylvania.     It  has  usually  been  applied  there  at  the 


68  FALLOWING. 

rate  ofabout  forty  bushels  to  the  acre.  In  Europe  ten 
times  this  quantity  is  frequently  used.  It  is  found  that 
the  lands  which  have  there  been  limed,  are  more  pow- 
erfully sliiiialated  by  the  application  of  gypsum,  than 
those  which  have  not.  It  is  an  easy  matter  for  our  far- 
mers to  ascertain  how  far  it  will  be  profitable  for  them 
to  use  lirnc,  by  making  experiments  with  a  single  cask. 
But  if  too  little, is  applied  the  application  may  prove 
usciess,  and  the  whole  expense  be  lost ;  whereas,  it 
rarely  hajjpens  that  injury  is  sustained  from  an  excess, 
especially  if  more  or  less  dung  is  soon  after  administer- 
ed. Mr.  Anderson  was  firmly  convinced,  from  repeated 
observations,  that  lime  and  other  calcareous  manures, 
produce  a  much  greater  proportional  improvement  upon 
poor  soils,  than  on  such  as  are  richer.  And  that  lime 
alone,  upon  a  pof;r  soil,  will  in  many  cases,  produce  a 
much  greater  and  more  lasting  degree  of  fertility,  than 
dung  alone.  Generally  where  lime  is  applied,  a  less 
quantity  of  dung  will  answer. 

The  best  way  to  apply  it,  according  to  Mr.  Picker- 
ing, is  to  slake  it  with  water,  and  as  soon  as  it  falls  to  a 
fine  powder  and  is  cool,  to  spread  it  evenly  over  the 
land,  and  with  the  harrow  mix  it  with  the  soil  immedi- 
ately, and  thoroughly. 

Lime  having  a  tendency  to  sink  in  the  soil,  cannot  be 
kept  too  near  the  surface.  The  quality  possessed  by 
lime  ot  producing  a  great  degree  of  fermentation,  ren- 
ders it  cf  singular  use  in  making  composts  ;  operating 
upon  a  heap  of  earth,  in  some  degree,  as  yeast  does  upon 
a  quantity  of  flour  or  meal.  If  a  handful  of  lime  be  thrown 
upon  a  spot  of  iong  rank  grass,  that  has  been  rejected  for 
years,  cattle  will  afterwards  eat  it  close  to  the  ground.  1 

Although  lime  is  dearer  in  the  first  instance,  than 
plaster,  yet  as  the  former  continues  its  powerful  effects 
for  seven  or  eight  years ;  in  the  end  it  may  be  cheaper 
in  certain  districts. 

tSea-shells^  when  burnt,  make  a  strong  lime.  The  far- 
mer can  burn  them  with  a  trilling  expense.  For  some 
Sf.iis  they  may  be  partially  burnt;  but  for  light  soils 
they  ma}  be  applied  by  merely  breaking  them.  A  thor- 
ough dressing  of  shells  enri<  hes  land  for  many  years. 

Ashes. — The  properties  of  ashes,  from  whatever  de- 
rived, are  nearly  the  same.     They  are  a  valuable  ma- 


,  FALLO'iVING.  69 

nure,  and  should  be  carefully  preserved  from  wet  and 
air.  One  load  of  dry  well  preserved  ashes,  will  go 
as  far  as  two  or  three  that  have  been  carelessly  kept. 
They  are  good  for  almost  all  crops,  and  are  to  be  used 
as  a  top-dressing,  because  they  soon  tind  their  vray  into 
the  soil.  By  their  tendency  downwards,  if  put  under 
the  surface  they  will  siak  too  low.  They  are  consider- 
ed rather  more  useful  near  the  sea  than  in  the  interior. 
They  are  most  beneficial  to  cold  and  damp  lands, 
but  of  great  service  to  ail.  A  few  bushels  on  an  acre 
are  a  good  dressing  for  grass  lands  that  are  low,  and  in- 
clining to  be  mossy.  Besides  their  fertilizing  qualities, 
they  check  the  ravages  of  worms  and  insects,  andshould 
therefore  be  applied  to  cabbages,  turnips,  cucumbers, 
melons,  peas  and  other  pulse.  Ashes  should  be  spread 
evenly,  not  in  too  great  quantities,  just  before  ruin  is  the 
best  time.  They  are  an  excellent  nourishment  for  the 
roots  of  trees.  Ashes  do  well  in  composts  if  kept  un- 
der cover,  making  a  fine  mixture  with  cow,  fowls,  and 
short  horse  dung;  and  mixed  with  mud  have  been  tho't 
by  Arthur  Youngs  superior  to  ashes  alone,  and  four  times 
better  than  mud  alone. 

Perhaps  ashes  may  be  most  profitably  applied  to  In- 
dian corn,  particularly  where  the  soil  is  not  suitable  to 
the  plant.  On  sward  land  about  a  gill  of  dry  ashes,  (the 
effect  from  a  greater  or  less  quantity  about  the  same,) 
or  half  a  shovel  full  of  leached  ashes,  should  be  spread 
circularly  round  the  top  of  the  hill  at  the  first  hoeing, 
not  touching  the  plants.  A  re-application  at  the  time 
the  ears  are  forming  will  be  profitable. 

Soot,  as  a  top-dressing,  is  much  more  valuable  than 
ashes,  and  is  proper  for  almost  all  arable  lands. 

Jl/f/r/,  is  a  substance  scarcely  known  in  this  part  of 
the  world,  3^et  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  abounds  in 
many  places  amongst  us.  It  is  therefore  of  importance 
that -its  distinguishing  qualities  should  be  briefly  pointed 
out,  that  every  parcel  of  earth,  which  bears  any  resem- 
blance to  it,  should  be  examined  with  care,  as  the  dis- 
covery would  be  invalulable.  Marls  are  various  in  their 
qualities  and  colors,  some  hard,  some  earthy,  and  some 
shelly,  &ic.  Beds  of  it  are  sometimes  found  under  light 
sandy  soils,  sometimes  in  bog  swamps,  in  clayey  lands, 
?iad  along  the  banks  of  rivers.  Boring  may  discover 
7* 


70  FALLOWING. 

wliere  it  U.     Marls    have    been    known    to  fertilize  all 
kinJs  of  soil,  but  light  sandy  ones  more  than  any  other. 
It  can  be  di.itin^uished  from  clay,  which  is  the  onl}'^  sub- 
stance it  is  likely  to  be  mistaken  for,    by  its  effervesing 
with  acids;  if  any  of  the  mineral   acids,  or  even  strong 
vinegar,  be  dropped  upon  the  surface  of  the  marl,  it  will 
produce  an  immediate  effervesence,    or   in   other  words 
tne  drop   v/ill   assume    the  appearance   of  boiling  ;  this 
will    not    be    the   case    with    clay.       A    more    simple 
mode  may  be  adopted  where  no  acid  is  at  hand  ;  take  a 
lump  the  size  of  an  ounce  ball  aodwhen  it  is  well  dried, 
drop  it  into  a  tumbler  of  clear  water ;  if  it    be    marl  it 
will  immediately  crumble  into  a  fine    soft    paste   in  the 
bottom  of  the  glass,  giving  off  innumerable  tine  air  bub- 
bles which  rise   to    the    surface   in    rapid    sucession ;  if 
clay  it  will   not  be  much  changed   by  the  water.     Marl 
should  be  placed  upon  the  land  late  in  the  fall,  and  left 
in  small  heaps  to    be    pulverised  by  the  frosts,  &.C.    and 
late  in  the   spring  spread  equalh'^  over   the  surface.     If 
applied  in  sufficient  quantity,    its   effects  will  be  as  per- 
ceptible as  that  produced  by  the  most  judicious  applica- 
tion of  gypsum. 

Peat^  is  often  found  in  low  miry  and  boggy  places,  that 
lie  between  hills,  and  is  sometimes  found  in  cold  hilly 
tracts.  That  which  is  the  most  solid,  is  the  most  valu- 
able. It  sometimes  forms,  and  in  other  places  is  very 
near  the  surface  ;  and  sometimes  8  or  10  feet  below  it. 
It  is  known  by  cutting  smooth  like  butter,  being  free 
from  grit,  and  burning  when  dried.  After  long  exposure 
to  the  air,  it  becomes  hard,  like  a  cinder.  When  put  in 
composts,  in  which  lime  is  an  ingredient,  it  is  converted 
into  a  substance,  similar  to  the  black  dirt  of  bog-mea- 
dows. Until  lately,  it  has  been  the  practice  to  burn 
peat  earth,  and  use  the  ashes  for  top-dressings  ;  (which 
are  supposed  to  be  much  stronger  than  wood  ashes  ;)  but 
we  believe  this  practice  in  Europe  has  mostly  given 
way  to  that  of  rotting  peat  in  compost.  One  ton  of 
dung  will  ferment  three  tons  of  peat  or  mo«;s  earth. — 
This,  it  is  observed  in  the  Code  of  Agriculture^  is  a  most 
valuable  discovery. 

Mud,  taken  from  swamps,  ponds,  ditches,  rivers,  and 
the  sea,  becomes  excellent  manure,  consisting  of  pnlri- 
fied  animal  and  vegetable    bodies    mixed  with  the  rich 


FALLOWING.  7 1 

earth  deposited  by  rains,  &c.  It  is  most  suitable  for 
sand}^  or  gravelly  soils.  It  should  not  be  put  upon 
ground,  especially  those  in  a  state  of  grass,  until  it  has 
been  reduced  into  a  considerable  degree  of  fineness,  by 
means  of  frequent  turning  over,  and  the  mixing  of  por- 
tions of  lime,  rotten  dung,  or  other  materials  of  the 
same  kind,  in  order  to  render  the  decay  of  its  parts 
complete.  As  a  top  dressing  for  grass  it  should  not  be 
laid  on  very  thick.  Mr.  Deane  says  he  has  known  it  to 
have  as  good  an  effect  as  barn  dung,  in  the  culture  of 
Indian  corn,  upon  dry  soils;  and  that  it  meliorates  the 
land  for  several  years.  The  best  method  of  managing 
all  sorts  of  mud,  were  it  not  for  increasing  the  labour, 
would  be  to  lay  it  in  farm  yards,  and  let  it  be  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  dung,  and  state  of  animals.  When  it  is 
so  managed,  the  compost  is  excellent,  and  fit  for  almost 
any  soil,  though  best  for  light  ones.  Perhaps  the  advan- 
tage is  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  increased  expense  of 
twice  carting.  Mud  taken  from  the  docks,  and  sides  of 
wharves  in  large  towns  is  very  valuable. 

Salt.     By  numerous  experiments,    it   it  decided,    that 
sea  salt  acts  as  a  manure  in  some  cases  to  a  degree  that 
proves  its  excellence  when    properly  applied.     In   pla- 
ces where  experiments  have  been  made,    salt  has  been 
called,  the  most  efficacious.^  the  best.,  and  the  cheapest  of  all 
manures.     Its    effects    are    said   to  have  been  visible  in 
some  places  after  30  years !  It    is    considered   the  most 
grateful  to  vegetation   of  all    manures.     Cattle   fed    on 
land  manured  with  salt,  are  said  to  fatten    in  two  thirds 
the  usual  time.    Their  flesh  is  also  finer  flavoured.    Salt 
is  considered  most  efficacious,  when  mixed  in  composts, 
in  dunghills,  or  strewed  over  dung  when  carried  to  the 
field.     If  unmixed,    undissolved,    or   used    in  too   great 
quantities,   it  endangers    the  existence  of  tender  plants. 
Pulverised,  and  applied  as  a  top  dressing,  at  the  rate  of 
from  2  to  4  bushels  to  the  acre,   it   has  had  a  powerful 
effect.     Flax  has  been  much  assisted  by  two  bushels  per 
acre,  and  even  five  instead  of  being  injurious  has  been 
of  extrordinary  advantage.     It  is  supposed  that  flax  and 
all  oily  seed  should  be  sown  with  double  their  quantity 
of  salt.     It  is  recommended  for  turnips,  onions,  destroy- 
ing  weeds  and  noxious  vermin.     Sown  thick  over  a  as- 
paragus   (a   maratime   plant)   in    the    fall,    and  lightly 


72  FALLOWING. 

sprinkled  over  in  Ihe  spring,  promotes  its  growth  and 
destroys  weeds.  Barn  dung  is  much  improved  by  salt- 
ing stock  li^'erally.  Quaniity  of  salt,  and  qilalities  of 
the  soil,  make  a  diiference.  Too  much  bunn ;  too  lit- 
tle is  ineffectual.  The  safest  way  is  to  begin  by  using 
it  sparingly,  always  ieavin-;  a  small  portion  of  the  same 
land  without  salt,  that  a  ju^^t  comparison  of  its  effects 
may  be  made. 

Sen-water^  applied  tc  manures  in  small  quantities  is 
found  to  possess  powerful  effocrs  in  promoting  putrefac- 
tion, and  would  probably  prove  highly  beneficial  to  all 
farmers  near  the  sea  side.  A  ton  of  water  contains 
from  one  to  one  and  an  half  bushel  of  salt.  Mr.  Deane 
makes  mention  of  100  hills  of  potatoes,  which  had  two 
quarts  of  sea-water  applied  to  each,  immediately  after 
planting;  and  he  sa3^s  that  the  product  of  these  was 
one-halt  more  than  the  same  number  of  adjoining  hills 
produced.  Most  probablj'^,  a  quart  to  each  hill  would 
have  been  better.  He  mentions  also  a  piece  of  flax,  of 
which  one  side  was  short  and  yellow ;  but,  on  its  being 
sprinkled  with  this  water,  it  equalled  the  rest  in  about 
ten  daj^s,  and  eventually  was  the  best.  He  found  it 
equally  good  for  stiff  and  sandy  grounds. 

Sca-wecih  where  used  with  judgment,  never  fails  to 
enrich  coast  lands,  especially  those  that  are  light  and 
dry.  It  should  be  ploughed  in  while  green  ;  if  there  is 
much  delay  in  this  business,  especially  in  hot  weather, 
much  of  its  goodness  is  lost.  If  that  cannot  be  accom- 
plished, a  portion  of  quick  lime  should  be  blended  with 
the  henps,  and  a  quantity  of  earth  placed  beneath,  mix- 
ed with,  and  covered  over  them ;  in  this  way  the  quan- 
tity of  manure  can  be  increased,  and  its  elfects  render- 
ed more  lasting.  It  is  best  calculated  for  barley,  endu- 
ring for  two  crops. 

Fish-iJianure ! — My  corn  should  not  grow  at  the  ex- 
pense of  so  much  life.  Swim  on  ye  harmless  tenants  of 
the  deep;  and  sport  at  freedom  in  your  native  wave. 
If  I  lived  on  the  shores  of  ocean,  your  decomposing  bo- 
dies should  not  contaminate  the  air  of  my  fragrant  iields, 
nor  mar  the  happy  rural  scene.  Nor  wou!-!  I  manure 
my  soil  with  such  phosphate  of  lime  as  some  of  the  Bri- 
tish farmers  use, — bones  transported  from  the  baltlc-lield, 
and  ground  in  their  sweet  mills. 


FALLOWING.  73 

Dead  Animals.  When  animals  die,  it  is  nsual  to  let 
them  lie  above  ground ;  and  some  farmers  hang  dead 
lambs,  cats,  dogs,  &.c.  in  the  forks  of  trees,  or  throw 
them  on  hovels  or  stumps  at  some  elevation  from  the 
ground,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  public!  By  covering 
dead  animals,  says  Mr.  Davy^  with  five  or  six  times  their 
bulk  of  soil,  mixed  with  one  part  of  lime,  and  suffering 
them  to  remain  for  a  few  months,  their  decomposition 
would  enrich  the  soil,  so  as  to  render  it  an  excellent 
manure  ;  and  by  mixing  a  little  fresh  quick  lime  with  it, 
at  the  time  of  its  removal,  the  disagreeable  effluvia  will 
be  in  a  great  measure  destroyed ;  and  it  might  be  em- 
ployed in  the  same  way  as  any  other  manure  to  crops. 
Or  without  lime,  if  left  a  suitable  time  they  can  be  re- 
moved without  difficulty. 

Scrapings  of  streets^  a  good  manure  for  all  soils,  but 
particularly  for  stubborn  clays. 

Leaves.  It  is  said  that  the  mould  and  fallen  leaves 
from  the  woods,  are  good  tor  potatoes,  as  a  substitute 
for  other  manure.  This  may  be  worth  the  attention  of 
those  who  are  deficient  in  other  manure. 

Brick  and  lime  rubbish.,  is  very  good  for  cold  plough 
lands. 

Apple  pummice.,  may  be  converted  into  a  manure. 
Good  earth  with  a  little  dung  should  be  mixed  with  it 
before  it  is  applied  to  the  soif. 

Tanners''  bark.,  is  sometimes  mixed  with  lime,  but  will 
do  best  made  into  a  compost  with  dung.  It  is  a  good 
manure  for  cold,  stifl'  lands.  On  grass  lands  it  should  al- 
ways be  spread  in  the  fall.     It  will  revive  orchards. 

Saw-dust,  when  rotten,  is  useful  for  strong  lands ;  a 
little  wet  decays  it,  and  the  eflect  is  more  speedy  than 
tanner's  bark,  but  not  so  lasting. 

Composts.,  furnish  a  supply  of  manure  when  a  suffi- 
ciency of  animal  dung  cannot  be  obtained. 

When  manure  is  not  made  by  hogs  kept  in  the  pen 
during  the  summer,  the  compost  heap  should  be  particu- 
larly attended  to.  The  following,  extracted  from  the 
Plough  Boy.,  is  a  very  easy  and  economical  method  of 
making  a  compost  heap.  Let  every  farmer  mark  out  a 
!«pot,  from  six  to  thirty  feet  square,  according  to  the 
size  of  his  farm ;  this  spot  should  be  dug  down  two  or 
three  feet  and  the  earth  formed  in  a  bank   around  it ;  a 


•74  iPALLOVVING. 

few  stout  posts  with  crotches  should  be  planted  in  a 
line  along  the  middle  of  the  pit,  and  shorter  ones  should 
be  placed  at  the  sides,  to  receive  strong  poles,  on 
which  to  erect  a  shed  of  common  boards.  Having  thus 
cheaply  made  a  shelter,  which  secures  the  manure  from 
the  sun,  from  rain,  and  from  water  running  into  it, 
(while  by  removing  a  few  of  the  boards,  a  little  rain  can 
be  admitted  in  a  dry  time)  the  materials  can  be  thrown 
together.  A  quantity  of  top  earth  or  soils,  and  if  the 
soil  of  the  farm  is  stiff,  a  quantity  of  sand  should  be 
mixed  and  laid  in  the  pit  a  foot  thick.  On  this  may  be 
laid  every  ingredient  that  can  be  gathered  together, 
that  is  calculated  to  manure  the  soil  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended. Clay,  sand,  mud,  lime,  peat,  &.c.  may  therefore 
be  parts.  To  these  may  be  added  the  scrapings  of  the 
back  yard,  turfs  on  which  cattle  have  long  dunged,  old 
rubbish  of  buildings,  earth  that  has  been  long  covered, 
banks  of  rich  earth  thrown  up  by  the  plough  against 
fences,  weeds,  some  animal  manure,  leached  ashes,  old 
fodder,  feathers,  refuse  wool,  woolen  rags,  hoofs  of  cat- 
tle, burnt  bones,  raw  skins,  bits  of  leather,  curriers 
shavings,  olTall  of  fish,  moss,  old  brine,  soap  suds,  &c. 
These  substances  should  be  mixed  as  much  as  p-  ssible  in 
forming  the  heap  ;  which  should  be  about  five  feet  high, 
and  when  this  settles  by  decomposition,  more  must  be 
added.  The  heap  should  have  such  a  degree  of  mois- 
ture as  best  promotes  fermentation  and  corruption.  This 
should  proceed  no  farther  than  to  destroy  the  seeds  of 
weeds.  Complete  putrefaction  seems  of  importance 
with  regard  to  these  ;  if  they  remain  sound,  they  are 
carried  out  with  the  manure,  and  infest  the  ground.  A 
cavity  may  be  made  at  one  side  of  the  heap,  to  receive 
any  liquid  that  runs  from  it,  and  this  should  be  thrown 
from  time  to  time,  on  the  top  of  it  with  a  scooping 
shovel.  To  prevent  swine  or  fowls  from  disturbing  the 
heap,  it  may  be  enclosed  with  wide  boards,  or  walled 
two  or  three  feet  high.  It  should  not  be  prepared  too 
long  before  used. 

Composts  are  well  calculated  for  grass  lands,  and 
ought  to  supercede  the  offensive,  and  wasteful  practice, 
of  laying  putrescent  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

If  our  farmers  in  general  would  be  persuaded  to  avail 
themselves  of  as  many  of  these  manures  as  fall  in  their 


FALLOWING.  75 

way,  or  cnn  be  easily  obtained,  we  should  no  longer  hear 
so  mm\y  dismal  complaints,  ot  short  crcp^,  and  worn 
out  lands.  The  i'ace  of  the  country  would  soon  be  sur- 
priringiy  improved. 

preservation  cf  manures.  It  is  well  observed  in  the 
American  Farmer.,  that  the  careful  preservauon,  and 
suitai:le  application,  of  manures,  form  one  of  the  best 
criterians  of  a  good  farmer.  Without  atteniion  to  these, 
in  old  cultivated  districts  like  ours,  lauds  must  become 
impoverished,  and  tiiiage  an  unprotitabie  branch  of  hus- 
bandry. 

The  prevalent  errors,  observes  Mr.  BueU  in  the  econ- 
omy of  manures,  are  a  want  of  properly  constructed 
farm  yards  ;  a  neglect  to  stable  or  yard  stock  during- 
some  of  our  winter  weather;  and  a  waste  of  straw, 
stalks,  and  other  vegetable  litier.  We  seldom  see 
among  us  yards  so  constructed  as  to  retain  the  iJuids 
which  are  produced  in  them.  On  the  contrary,  cattle 
yards  are  often  located  with  the  a[. parent  intention  of 
being  drained  into  an  adjoining  field,  a  neighboring 
brook,  or  the  highway  ;  and  we  frequently  see  them 
destitute  of  any  substantial  and  permanent  enclosures. 
The  practice  of  feeding  cattle  at  stacks,  remote  from  the 
farm  yard,  occasions  a  waste  of  fodder,  a  great  loss  of 
manure,  and  serious  injury  frequently  to  grass  grounds, 
by  the  poaching  of  the  catties  feet.  The  waste  of 
green  and  dry  litter,  is  a  still  more  serious  injury  to 
good  husbandry.  Straw,  and  stalks  and  hu«ks  of  Indian 
corn  are  often  fed  in  open  fields,  or  suffered  to  waste  ia 
heaps;  while  the  practice  is  very  general  to  permit 
weeds  of  all  kinds,  after  the  crop  is  harvested,  to  ripen 
and  shed  their  seeds  upon  the  fields,  to  the  ver}'  serious 
injury  of  future  crops. 

Experience  points  out  that  a  barn-yard  should  be  a 
little  hollowed.  Its  principal  use,  besides  that  of  hold- 
ing the  dung,  being  to  bring  the  rain  water  failing  with- 
in the  yard  into  the  state  of  stagnation,  and  to  let  it  pass 
off  superficially,  so  as  to  prevent  any  thing  of  a  cur- 
rent from  carrying  away  the  dung,  either  in  a  mas«;,  or 
thick  fluid  condition ;  merely  suffering  the  more  watery 
particles  to  run  off  into  a  reservoir  or  receiver,  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  or  into  adjoining  cultivated 
fields. 


76  FALLOWING. 

If  a  reservoir  is  formed  for  the  superfluoui?  wash  of 
tlie  yartl,  large  quantities  of  earth  and  Ut.er  should  be 
thrown  into  it;  for  a  compost,  so  collected,  is  an  admi- 
rable top-dressing  for  permanent  grass  land,  or  young 
clover.  The  yard  should  be  free  from  rocks,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  Viigh  close  fence.  If  the  soil  is  not  com- 
pact enough  to  retain  moisture,  it  should  be  beded  with 
clay  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  beat  down  compact,  and 
covered  with  gravel  or  sand,  to  prevent  its  removal 
when  manure  is  taken  out.  Before  the  commencement 
of  the  foddering  season,  the  yanl  should  be  covered 
with  some  kind  of  earth,  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  ten, 
or  more  inches,  according  to  the  num!)er  of  cattle.  The 
cattle  should  be  strictly  confined  during  winter,  (except 
to  exercise  occasionally,  and  not  turned  out,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case,  into  the  pastures  and  meadows,  by 
which  the  making  of  much  manure  i  prevented,  great 
injury  in  m.any  situations  done  to  grass^lands,  and  the 
stock,  from  being  much  exposed  to  cold  and  other  cau- 
ses, benefitted  in  a  far  less  degree  than  is  commonly  im- 
agined. A  well  should  be  made  close  to  the  yard  to 
supply  them  with  water  ;  this  will  save  much  manure, 
prevent  accidents,  and  in  times  of  ice  and  snow  prevent 
the  stock  from  suffering  for  drink  as  they  often  do, 
when  the  owner  is  ignorant  of  it.  Where  the  number  of 
cattle  confined  in  a  y;iri  is  considerable,  it  may  be  ne- 
cessary, occasionally,  to  remove  the  bottoms,  and  the 
matters  littered  upon  them,  to  dung  heaps,  after  they 
have  become  blended  with  rich  materials.  These  must 
be  immediately  replaced  by  more  earth,  &c. 

As  great  waste  is  occasioned  by  the  evaporation  of 
the  more  liquid  parts  of  manure  heaps,  when  exposed  to 
the  sun  or  NVinds,  and  the  wa«*hing  of  rains  and  melting 
of  snows  ;  it  is  sasr^este  1  that  moveable  coverings  of 
some  light  kind  of  materials  be  placed  over  them.  Ma- 
nures kept  in  this  way  are  far  more  efficacious.  If  this 
1-;  not  done,  mining  dry  earth,  or  other  absorbed  substan- 
ces with  the  heaps  will  assist  in  preserving  them.  Or 
if  the  heaps  are  to  remain  some  time  exposed  to  the  sun, 
&c.  they  should  be  covered  with  turf 

It  is  an  excellent  practice  to  cover  the  whole  surface 
of  the  dung  heap  ^vith  a  light  coat  of  earth  every  time 
the  stables  are  cleaned  out,  if  there  is  no   other  cover- 


FALLOWING.  77 

ing".  Troughs  should  conduct  the  water  from  the  eves, 
and  every  reasonable  precaution  shouid  be  used  to  pre- 
vent the  manure  from  being  washed  by  rains.  As  soon 
as  the  manure  is  cleaned  out  of  the  yard  for  spring 
crops,  if  the  cattle  are  to  be  kept  in  it  at  night,  it  should 
be  covered  with  litter,  and  a  coat  of  earth,  or  mud  ; 
and  as  often  as  once  in  two  weeks,  a  new  coat  of  earth 
should  be  introduced.  In  this  way  manure  may  be  in- 
creased in  a  four  fold  degree.  Or  every  morning  after 
the  cattle  are  turned  out,  the  manure  shouid  be  thrown 
in  one  corner  of  the  yard,  and  on  this  a  load  of  earth 
should  occasionally  be  thrown.  But  if  a  yard  is  left  na- 
ked until  autumn,  exposed  to  our  burning  summer  suns, 
w^ithout  litter  or  mud,  or  earth  of  any  kiiid,  to  absorb 
the  essence  of  the  manure,  much  the  largest  part  will 
be  exhaled  and  given  to  the  winds.  Fresh  manure  should 
be  kept  as  careiully  from  the  sun  and  rain  as  grass 
which  has  been  cut  for  hay. 

By  keeping  hogs  in  a  large  open  pen  during  summer, 
large  quantities  of  manure  may  be  made  by  a  plan  simi- 
lar to  that  recommended  for  the  barn  yard.  Mr,  But- 
lev  recommends  the  sowing  half  an  acre  of  clover  on  a 
rich  soil  near  the  barn,  to  be  cut  green  and  fed  to  hogs, 
as  both  cheap  and  profitable.  Into  the  hog  pen  can  ba 
thrown  coarse  hay,  pumpkin  and  potatoe  vines,  oorn 
bottoms,  husks,  weeds  of  allkinds,  &c. 

Application  of  manures. — A  few  ol;servations  remain 
to  be  made  under  this  head,  in  addition  to  what  has 
been  said  on  the  various  articles. 

Animal  manure  should  not  be  suffered  to  ferment, 
previous  to  its  application,  except  in  a  very  slight  de- 
gree. Mr.  Davy  says,  it  looses  60  parts  out  of  100,  when 
the  process  of  fermentation  is  allowed  to  proceed  unin* 
terruptediy.  A  slight  fermentation  is  undoubtedly  of 
use  in  the  dunghiil,  where  there  is  a  considerable  col- 
lection of  straw,  hay,  &lc.  for  by  means  of  it  a  disposition 
is  brought  on  to  decay  when  ploughed  into  the  soil,  and 
the  work  is  more  conveniently  executed.  Too  great  a 
degree  of  fermentation  is  however  very  prejudicial  to 
compost  manure  in  the  dung  hill ;  it  is  better  that  tliere 
should  be  no  fermentation  a-  ail  before  the  manure  m 
used,  than  that  it  should  be  carried  too  f\ir.  There  are 
many  arguments  and  facts  which  shew  it  is  prejudicial 
8 


^7  ^f 


78  rALLOWINflf. 

to  the  interests  of  the  farmer,  to  permit  the  violent  fer- 
mentation   which   is  necessary  for    reducing-  farm   yard 

manure  to  the  state  in  which  it  is  called   short  muck 

We  allow  that  when  well  rotted,  it  is  more  eflicacious 
for  a  single  crop,  but  its  utihty  is  of  much  shorter  dura- 
tion. 

To  prevent  inconvenience  from  seeds  in  unfermented 
barnyard  dung",  it  should  be  applied  to  no  other  than  hoed 
crops.  Compost  manures,  having  fermented  sufficiently 
to  destroy  the  seeds  of  weeds,  can  be  used  for  all  crops, 
where  the  hoe  is  not  used.  To  avoid  any  inconven- 
ience by  applying  long,  or  unfermented  manures  to  cer- 
tain crops,  such  as  flax,  wheat,  turnips,  &c.  we  have  on- 
ly to  apply  the  manure  to  the  preceding  crop. 

It  seems  to  be  generally  agreed^  that  iising  fresh^  iinfer' 
merited  manure  for  drill  crops,  burying  it  at  a  good  depth^ 
and  raising  the  plant  over  the  dung  thus  buried,  is  the  best 
possible  way  in  which  it  can  be  used  The  shortest  dung 
should  be  used  for  these  purposes,  except  for  potfitoes. 
Throw  the  mora  strawy  parts  of  the  dung  in  a  heap  four 
or  five  feet  high  under  cover,  sUr  it  up  from  the  bottom 
in  five  or  six  we^^ks,  and  it  v/ill  do  well  for  ruta  baga. 

Fibrous-rooted  grasses  should  receive  top-dressings  of 
manure,  and  tap-rooted  grasses,  and  all  grain  and  root 
crops  should  have  manure  applied  at  a  depth  suited  to 
the  nature  of  the  roots.  All  dressings  must  consist  of 
materials  adapted  to  the  soil,  and  such  manures  as  are 
likely  to  receive  injury  from  l)eing  spread  upon  the  sur- 
face, should  be  lightly  ploughed,  or  harrowed  in.  The 
fall  is  supposed  much  the  best  time  to  spread  manure  on 
grass  lands.  But  those  manures  which  exert  all  their 
strength  suddenly,  such  as  ashes,  soot,  and  warm  com- 
posts, should  be  applied  just  before  the  time  when  the 
plants  will  need  the  greatest  supply  of  vegetable  nour- 
ishment, which  is  when  their  growth  is  most  rapid,  or 
near  the  time  when  the  ears  are  shooting  out. 

All  kinds  of  manure,  should  be  mixed  with  the  soil  as 
soon  after  carting  out  as  possible.  To  do  this  to  advan- 
tage it  should  not  be  cart-ed,  spread,  &c.  faster  than  it 
can  be  covered  with  the  plough  or  hoe.  Rich  fermen- 
ting manures  should  be  applied  as  near  the  time  of  plan- 
ling  as  possible. 


FALLOWING.  79 

As  regards  the  depth  at  which  manure  ought  to  be 
placed,  extremes  must  be  avoided.  Barn  dung  should 
be  buried  to  a  good  depth ;  and  in  this  state  should  re- 
main till  it  has  sufficiently  rotted ;  for  by  lying  too  near 
the  surface  much  of  its  efficacy  is  lost.  Other  manures 
which  have  a  tendency  to  sink,  must  have  a  different 
management. 

A  sound  discretion  is  essential,  in  determining  how 
much  manure  may  be  expended,  to  advantage,  on  lands  ; 
generally  speaking,  much  is  lost  in  falling  short  of  that 
point  where,  by  the  aid  of  plentiful  manuring,  the 
greatest  profits  are  to  be  expected.  Enough  should  be 
applied  to  fertilize  the  ground,,  and  render  it  capable 
of  producing  good  crops.  Soils  may,  however,  be  over 
charged  with  composts,  or  with  raw  barn-dung.  But  it 
has  been  too  much  practised  in  this  country,  to  apply 
scanty  portions  of  manure  to  lands  in  tillage,  and  hard- 
ly sufficient  to  have  a  perceptible  effect.  Mr.  Deane  re- 
commends a  plentiful  dunging,  once  in  two  years,  or  in 
a  course  of  crops ;  and  the  year  the  manure  is  laid  on, 
take  a  crop  that  bears  high  manuring  best,  as  Indian 
corn :  Afterwards  crops  that  need  less  manure,  till  the 
end  of  the  course. 

There  is  a  system  of  management  (says  the  celebra- 
ted Arthur  Young'^  which  has  attracted  a  good  deal  of 
attention,  and  that  is,  to  use  dung  fresh  as  made  ;  thus 
requiring  no  dunghills  at  all,  or  nearly  none.  He  men- 
tions the  late  Mr.  Ducket,  who  conceived  that  the  more 
dunghills  are  stirred,  and  turned  over,  and  rotted,  the 
more  of  their  virtue  was  lost.  Long  dung  he  esteemed 
much  more  than  the  same  quantity  of  short  dung.  A 
very  accurate  farmer,  of  Hertfordshire,  says  the  fresher 
dung  is  used,  the  better,  even  for  grass.  Near  Meaux, 
in  France,  the  farmers  carry  out  their  dung  quite  in  a 
long  strawy  state,  which  they  contend  earnestly  is  much 
better  than  to  leave  it  to  be  more  rotten.  He  quotes 
many  other  authorities  in  f\ivour  of  this  management, 
which  tends  to  reduce  their  labour  and  increase  their 
crops.  Warmth  and  nutriment  will  in  this  way  be  more 
gradually  applied  to  the  roots  of  plants.  Vegetable  and 
animal  matters  cannot  serve  as  manures,  says  Senebier^ 
till  they  begin  to  ferment;  nor  are  they  of  any  utility 
when  the  fermentation    is    finished.     Fresh    long  dung; 


80  FALLOWING. 

more  particularly  should  be  applied  to  hoeing  crops,  or 
to  grass  land.  Upon  this  system  the  dung  which  is 
made  in  the  depth  of*  winter  may  be  spread  in  May,  for 
corn  and  potatoes  ;  the  next  made,  and  what  is  not  want- 
ed for  corn  and  potatoes,  niay  be  taken  out,  in  June,  for 
ruta-baga,  cabbages,  &c.  The  best  time  for  manuring 
grass  (in  England)  is  immediately  after  hay  is  cleared 
irom  the  tield.  1o  conclude — He  who  is  within  the 
sphere  of  the  scent  of  a  dunghill,  smells  that  which  his 
crop  would  have  consumed,  if  he  would  have  permit- 
ted it.  Instead  of  manuring  his  land,  he  manures  the 
atmosphere ;  and  before  his  dunghill  is  finished  turning, 
he  has  manured  perhaps  another  town  ! 

If  every  kind  of  putrid  substance  that  could  be  col- 
lected in  the  spring  of  the  year,  was  properly  applied 
as  manure,  this  dead  '  matter  would  be  springing  into 
life  ;  and  those  farmers  who  would  do  it  would  be  doubly 
paid  for  their  labour  in  enriching  their  lands,  and  caus- 
ing them  to  produce  abundance,  and  in  being  able  to 
breathe  a  pure  air,  ^vhich  is  too  often  poisoned  by  the 
noxious  effluvia  which  are  rising  from  barn-yards  and 
putrid  substances  around  buildings,  and  which  no  doubt 
frequently  produce  fevers  and  other  diseases  during  the 
/Glimmer  and  fall  season. 

Having  thus  briefly  described  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant circumstances  connected  with  the  collecting, 
preserving,  and  application  of  manures,  we  shall  con- 
clude this  branch  of  our  subject  with  Mr.  Close''s  very 
valuable  table  for  manuring  land,  which  will  enable  the 
farmer  at  one  inspection  to  calculate,  with  accuracy,  the 
number  of  loads  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  employ 
in  manuring  a  field  per  acre  ;  at  the  distance  therein 
specified. 

Number  of  loads  per  acre. 
Kumher  of  heaps  to  a  load^       1   |2|3|4|5|6j7l8 

At  5  yards  distance,  193  06  64  48  33  32  27  24 

At  5  1-2  yards  distance,  160  8U  53  40  32  26  23  20 

At  6  yards  distance,  134  67  44  33  2G  22   19  16 

At  6  "l-^  vards  distance,  114  57  38  28  22  19   16  14 

At  7  yards  distance,  98  49  32  24   19  16   14  12 

At  7  1-2  yar.ls  distance,  86  43  28  21    17  14  12  10 

At  8  yards  distance,  75  37  25  18   15  12  10  9 


FALLOWING.  81 

Explanation  of  the  first  two  rows  of  figures  in  ike  prece- 
ding Table. 
The  number  of  heaps  consisting"  of  one  load  each, 
laid  at  five  yards  distant,  is  193  to  cover  one  acre;  at 
two  heaps  to  a  load  98  ;  2ii  three  heaps,  64;  at  four.,  43; 
and  so  to  the  end: — each  of  the  following  rows  is  to  be 
read  in  a  similar  manner. 

CULMIFEROUS    CROPS. 

The  varieties  of  corn  ranked  as  culmiferous,  or  rob- 
bing ones,  are,  wheat,  barley,  oals,  and  rye ;  to  which 
may  be  added  Indian  corn,  and  millet.  These  we  are 
inclined  to  consider  as  bearing  hard  upon  the  soil.  Du- 
ring the  ripening  of  the  seed,  they  draw  probably  their 
whole  nourishment  from  tha  soil ;  as  the  leaves  by  this 
time,  being  dry  and  withered,  must  have  lost  their  pow- 
er of  drawing  nourishment  froni  the  air.  But  such 
plants,  while  young,  are  all  leaves  ;  and  in  that  state 
draw  much  of  their  nourishment  from  the  air.  Hence  it 
is,  that  when  cut  green  for  food  to  cattle,  a  culmiferous 
crop  is  far  from  being  a  robber.  It  is  by  fixing  upon 
the  most  proper  of  each  for  the  soil  cultivated,  that  the 
judgment  of  the  farmer  is  correctly  ascertained.  In 
other  respects,  such  as  the  exhaustion  of  the  ground, 
we  view  it  as  a  matter  of  little  importance  Avhich  of 
them  is  preferred.  The  above  are  also  called  whiie 
crops. 

LEGUMINOUS     CROPS. 

Though  culmiferous  crops  have,  in  all  ages,  been  re- 
garded as  most  profitable,  there  is  no  doubt,  but  that  ru- 
ral management  is  most  saitably  exercised  when  due 
attention  is  paid  to  the  preparative  crops,  orthose  which 
are  naturally  calculated  to  enrich  or  fertilize  the  soil, 
and  to  furnish  an  increased  stock  of  manure.  These 
preparative  or  enrichiu'r  crops  are  usually  called  iegu- 
miaous ;  under  this  head  are  ranked,  beans,  peas,  clov- 
er, potatoes,  ruta-baga,  mangel-wurlzel,  turnips,  cabba- 
ges, carrots,  parsnips,  and  buckwheat.  The  above  are 
also  called  green  crops. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

No  branch    of  husbandry  requires  more  skill  and  sa- 
gacity than  a  proper  rotation  of  crops,    so    as  to   keep 
H=8 


8.2  FALLOWING. 

the  ground  ahvays  in  heart,  and  yet  to  draw  out  of  it 
the  greatest  protit  possible.  In  many  parts  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  it  is  very  little,  if  at  all  attended  to.  In 
new  settled  districts,  the  extreme  fertility  and  abun- 
dance of  the  lands  lessens  the  necessity  of  an  attention 
to  rotation  of  crops,  but  in  any  situation,  the  farmer 
will  tind,  if  he  takes  the  trouble  to  make  a  comparative 
experiment,  that  some  crops  are  much  more  abundant 
when  they  succeed  certain  grains  and  roots,  than  when 
put  in  at  random.  Some  kinds  of  vegetables  extend 
their  roots  near  the  surface,  others  penetrate  deeper  in- 
to the  soil,  some  by  overshadowing  the  earth  with  their 
broad  leaves  render  it  soft  and  mellow ;  others,  w^hose 
naked  stalks  admit  the  free  circulation  of  the  air,  con- 
solidate the  soil ;  some  derive  the  greatest  part  of  their 
nourishment  from  the  juices  lodged  in  the  earth  ;  others 
draw  a  considerable  proportion  from  the  atmosphere  ; 
some,  having  a  longer  period  of  existence,  continue  long 
to  demand  nourishment;  others  arrive  more  quickly  at 
maturity,  and  must  be  easier  supported.  Besides,  among 
the  various  tribes  of  insects  so  feeble  in  themselves,  but 
so  formidable  and  destructive  by  their  numbers,  each 
has  some  vegetables  which  it  prefers  to  others  for  its 
food,  and  resorts  to  the  places  where  such  food  is  pro- 
duced ;  and  as  they  propagate  their  kinds  where  their 
food  is  found,  they  must  become  more  numerous,  and 
consequently  more  destructive,  where  the  cultivation  of 
the  same  plant  is  often  repeated.  Rozier^  in  his  diction- 
ary of  agriculture  remarks — Every  tap-rooted  plant  suc- 
ceeds very  well  after  a  crop  of  plants  with  fibrous  roots, 
and  thus  alternately.  That  is  the  grand  art  of  agricul- 
ture— when  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  well  understood. 
The  cultivator  never  swerves  from  these  data  or  posi- 
tions, without  paying  dearly. 

Whatever  may  be  said  to  the  contrary,  all  soils  cer- 
tainly suffer  some  degree  of  deterioration  by  long,  un- 
remitted tillage.  When  divested  of  that  clothing  with 
which  nature  always  defends  it  if  undisturbed,  and  when 
turned  up  naked  to  abide  the  force  of  the  blast,  the 
happy  medium  of  consisience  is  deranged,  its  best  par- 
ticles carried  away  in  'orrents,  and  it  is  left  a  feeble 
skeleton,  possessing  only  the  faint  semblance  of  depart- 
ed fertility.     Land  also  which  lies  perpetually  in  gras^, 


FALLOWING.  83 

is  deprived  of  the  advantage  of  having  the  vegetable 
substance  accumulating  on  the  surface  from  time  to 
time  mixed  into  the  soil.  It  is  a  maxim  of  Mr.  Peters, 
President  of  the  Philadelphia  Agricultural  Society,  To 
lay  down  land  and  break  it  up  often.  Convertible  hus- 
bandry, or  regulur  alternations  of  tillage  crops  and  pas- 
tures and  meadows,  seem  therefore,  to  be  the  only  sys- 
tem by  which  the  fertility  of  the  country  can  be  pre- 
served and  improved-  Whatever  pains  we  take,  what- 
ever expenses  we  incur,  in  collecting  instruments  of 
husbandry,  in  accumulating  and  applying  manures,  and 
in  tilling  the  earth ;  all  is  to  little  purpose,  unless  to 
these  we  superadd  a  succession  of  crops^  adapted  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil — to  the  laws  of  the  climate^  and  to  the 
physical  character  and  commercial  value  of  the  article 
raised.  The  practice  of  applying  manure  and  cropping, 
so  as  to  draw  out  the  strength  of  it,  and  that  of  the 
soil,  as  soon  as  it  can  be  done,  until  the  land  is  rendered 
quite  barren  and  incapable  of  affording  any  more  pro- 
duce without  some  respite,  is  most  miserable,  and  de- 
serves the  highest  reprobation. 

Crops  are  generally  divided  into  two  kinds,  viz.  those 
that  exhaust  and  impoverish  the  soil  on  which  they 
grow ;  and  those  that  ameliorate  and  improve  it.  The 
first  are  fibrous-rooted  plants,  as  Indian  corn,  wheat, 
barley,  rye,  oats,  flax,  &c.  The  second  includes  all  the 
leguminous  and  tap-rooted  tribes,  as  beans,  peas,  tur- 
nips, parsnips,  carrots,  clover,  &c.  Agricultural  im- 
provement depend  in  a  great  measure  on  the  judicious 
interchange  of  their  different  crops;  in  soils  which  are 
well  adapted  to  a  variety  of  plants ;  for  under  proper 
management  land  may  be  constantly  cropped,  without 
the  intervention  of  a  fallow,  as  was  formerly  the  prac- 
tice. It  is  easier  and  cheaper  to  keep  land  in  heart, 
than  to  restore  it  after  it  is  worn  out.  Weeds  will  so 
increase,  especially  in  old  farms,  as  almost  to  spoil  a 
crop,  unless  a  hoed  crop  intervene  to  check  them  <nce 
in  two  or  three  years.  And  a  green  hoed  crop  helps  to 
prepare  land  for  producing  other  crops,  by  enriching  it. 
Wheat  land,  for  instance,  may  be  recruited,  and  cleared 
of  its  weeds,  by  a  crop  of  beans,  or  potatoes,  as  effec- 
tually as  by  fallowing. 


B4  FALLOWING. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  what  particular  routine  of 
crops  is  best.  Green  and  white  crops,  alternately,  are 
in  general  reconrimended.  Soils  differ  so  greati}^  even 
in  fields  which  lie  contiguous,  that  the  course  ot^  crops 
which  is  suitable  for  one  is  unsuitable  for  another. 

The  following  important  rules,  in  regard  to  rotations, 
are  particularly  recommended. 

1.  When  any  farm  begins  to  be  improved,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  commence  with  such  crops  as  are  the  most  likely 
to  produce  manure  ;  nor  should  two  exhausting  crops  be 
attempted,  in  succession,  until  the  soil  has  acquired  a 
considerable  degree  of  fertiiity. 

2.  The  crops  should  be  so  arranged,  that  the  labour 
of  ploughing  for  each,  and  of  sowing,  weeding,  reaping, 
&:c.  shall  proceed  in  a  regular  succession. 

3.  All  forcing  crops,  or  frequent  repetitions  of  the 
same  articles  or  species,  should  be  avoided  ;  as  a  dimi- 
nution both  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  produce, 
is  the  usual  consequence.  In  soils  of  moderate  fertility, 
the  greater  the  distanxe,  at  which  the  repetition  of  any 
sort  of  crop  can  be  kept,  the  better. 

4  Tho  e  crops  should  be  mixed,  which  are  known  to 
be  most  productive  of  manure,  and  are  best  calculated 
for  the  extirpation  of  weeds.  Hence  it  ia  better  to  cul- 
tivate a  greater  proportion  of  green  crops  than  of  grain. 

It  is  supposed  that  hemp-  carrotts,  onions  and  buck- 
wheat, may  be  cultivated  successively  upon  the  same 
grounds  for  many  j^ears ;  but  clover,  potatoes,  and  In- 
dian corn,  oats  and  barley,  wheat  and  rye,  v.ill  not  an- 
swer well  for  more  than  two  years,  without  high  naanu- 
ring;  and  even  then,  they  do  best  under  a  change  of 
crops  ;  flax  will  not  succeed  well  upon  the  same  ground 
oftener  than  once  in  seven  years,  therefore,  a  larm 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  have  a  regular  routine  of 
crops,  once  in  four,  five,  six  or  seven  years,  according 
to  the  nature  or  circumstances  of  the  farm.  Where 
circumstances  render  ploughing  not  so  advantageous  as 
pasturing,  the  land  may  remain  in  grass  till  these  cir- 
cumstances are  obviated ;  care  being  always  taken, 
when  it  is  broken  up,  to  follow  alternate  husbandry  du- 
ring the  time  it  is  under  tillage.  In  this  way  the  alter- 
nate system  can  be  followed  in  every  situation ;  nor  do 
we  consider  the  land  being  in    grass    for  two,    three  or 


FALLOWING.  &5 

four  years,  as  a  departure   from  that  system,    if  called 
for  by  a  scarcity  of  manure,  poverty  of  soil,  &c. 

The  following  rotations  may  serve  as  an  outline  sub- 
ject to  be  varied,  as  circumstances  may  require. 

Light  reddish  sandy  soil.  First  crop,  turnips,  well  ma- 
nured with  compost.  Second,  peas,  with  some  gypsum. 
Third,  rye  with  red  clover-seed  harrowed  in  with  a 
light  harrow  in  the  spring.  Fourth  and  fifth,  clover, 
with  a  light  dressing  of  gypsum,  after  each  mowing. 

Dark  sand^  and  a  sandy  loam.  Indian-corn  with  pota- 
toes, may  be  the  first  crop.  It  is  recommended  to  plant 
the  corn  in  rows  north  and  south,  six  feet  a  part  and  in 
hills  about  two  feet  from  each  other.  The  rows  of  po- 
tatoes are  planted  between  the  rows  of  corn.  Indian 
corn,  in  order  to  afford  the  greatest  quantity  of  ears,  re- 
quires to  stand  more  widel}^  separated,  than  it  is  when 
grown  in  the  usual  way  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  other 
plants,  of  more  humble  growth,  may  be  raised  in  the  in- 
tervals ;  without  essential  injury  to  the  growth  of  the 
corn.  It  would  seem,  that  as  much  as  one-fourth  of  ad- 
ditional aggregate  product  may,  in  this  way  be  raised 
from  any  given  quantity  of  ground.  Second  turnips; 
then  wheat  or  rye,  if  the  turnips  can  be  removed  from 
the  ground  in  time  ;  then  clover  ;  then  another  crop  of 
ivheat  or  rye  ;  then  the  Indian-corn  and  potatoes  again. 
Or  barley  with  clover  may  come  in  after  turnips. 

Dry  loam.  Some  of  these  soils  are  good  lor  Indian 
corn,  especially  the  mellow  reddish-colored  loams.  The 
rotation  may  be  similar  to  the  last.  Sometimes,  the- 
first  crop  should  be  potatoes,  well  dunged ;  then  Indian 
corn  manured  wi^h  gypsum. 

Wet  loam.  If  very  wet,  few  crops  can  be  raised  to 
advantage,  except  grasses.  If  not  very  wet,  potatoes 
may  be  the  first  crop  ;  let  the  ground  be  siifiiciently 
mellowed  with  ploughing,  and  then  very  shallow  fur- 
rows run  for  forming  the  beds  for  the  dung ;  cover  the 
seed  with  a  furrow  of  a  one  horse  plough,  run  on  each 
side,  so  that  in  this  way  the  roots  will  be  more  elevated 
than  is  necessary  in  drier  soils.  After  the  potatoes  are 
taken  off,  throw  up  the  ground  in  high  narrow  ridges — 
mellow  the  ground  In  the  spring,  and  plant  Indian 
corn  on  rirlges  to  be  raised  by  two  furrows  thrown 
up  against  each  other.  Ridge  it  again  in  the  fall ;  and 
in  the  spring  sow  oats,  barley,  or  summer  wheat  as  most 


?>C>  FALLOWING. 

suitable.  Good  crops  of  flax  may  also  be  raised  in  such 
soils ;  and  the}^  are  suitable  for  winter-wheat,  where 
they  are  sufficiently  dry  to  enable  that  crop  to  withstand 
frosts.  ^\itli  the  third  crop  i>rass-seeds  should  common- 
ly be  sown,  which  should  be  those  of  timothy  or  some 
other  kind  calculated  to  withstand  frosts.  Clover,  will 
do  if  the  ground  is  sufficiently  dry  for  wheat.  When  the 
grasses  begin  to  fail,  break  up  the  ground.  Oats,  on 
the  sward,  if  properly  turned  over  will  do  for  the  first 
crop. 

Dark  dry  loams,  are  well  calculated  for  an  extensive 
rotation  of  crops,  which  may  be  similar  to  those  men- 
tioned for  a  dry-loam.  They  are  not  generally  so  good 
for  wheat  as  stiiTer  soils;  nor  for  turnips  as  sandy  ones. 

Gravelly  soils,  are  generally  best  adapted  to  crops  of 
rye  and  red-clover,  aiternately;  and  with  gypsum  and 
deep  ploughing  will  bear  tolerably  good  crops  of  each. 
In  this  way  good  crops  of  buckwheat  may  be  had  from 
such  soils,  which  are  naturally  very  poor  ;  and  this  in- 
stead of  rye,  may  be  the  intermediate  crop  between 
those  of  clover,  from  which  the  most  profit  is  to  be  ex- 
pected. Sainfoin  will  also  answer  for  hard  gravels.  On 
tine  gravels  approaching  to  the  nature  of  gravelly  loam, 
crops  of  potntoes,  Indian  corn,  and  even  wheat  may  be 
had,   in  rotation,  beside  clover,  with  suitable  manures, 

"Gravelly  loam,  with  the  aid  of  gypsum  and  other  suit- 
able manures  is  properly  calculated  for  a  rotation,  say, 
first  of  potatoes,  then  Indian  corn,  followed  by  wheat  in 
the  fall,  after  the  corn  has  been  cut  up ;  or,  barley  in 
the  srjring,  and  thv^n  clover.  Some  of  the  mellower  and 
richer  Sorts  of  this  soil  niay  answer  well  for  turnips, 
carrotts,  and  other  roots,  and  for  almost  all  kinds  of 
crops  suitable  for  dry  upland  soils. 

Clayey  soils,  if  sufficiently  dry,  with  a  proportion  of 
calcareous  or  silicious  earth  mixed  with  them,  mav  be 
well  suited  for  rotations  of  such  culmiferous  and  legu- 
minous crops  as  may  be  found  most  advantageous ;  and 
also  for  some  of  the  root  crops.  The  rotation  may  be 
similar  to  that  for  dry  loams,  substituting  the  potatoe 
for  the  turnip  crop.  If  the  soil  be  a  stiff  dry  cla}^,  the 
first  crop  may  be  oats,*  well  harrowed  in  on  the  sward. 

The  tendency  of  the  oat  is  to  pulverise  the  soil  by  the  expan- 
sion of  its  roots  whii£  growing,  perhaps  more  than  any  ether 
fxrain. 


FALLOWINO.  87 

Turn  the  stubble  under ;  and  in  the  fall  throw  up  the 
ground  into  high  narrow  ridges.  In  the  spring,  cleave 
these  down  and  prepare  the  ground  for  barley,  after  ma- 
nuring with  suitable  compost.  Plough  up  immediaiely 
after  harvest ;  put  it  in  wheat  in  the  fall ;  and  in  the 
spring  harrow  in  clover  and  timothy-seed.  When  the 
grass  begins  to  fail,  begm  the  rotation,  as  before.  When 
too  wet  for  wheat,  they  admit  of  but  Uttle  change ;  and 
should  be  kept  mostly  in  timothy  or  other  grass  suitable 
to  the  soil.  The  changes  may  be  oats,  and  then  sum- 
mer wheat,  or  perhaps  barley,  as  before  mentioned. 

It  has  been  said,  that  the  foundaliou  of  all  good  agri- 
culture was  the  raising  roots,  as  winter  food  {or  cattle. 
What  other  cultivation  can  enable  a  farmer  to  rai?e  on 
aspeciiied  quantity  of  ground,  so  great  a  quantity  of  ex- 
ceilent  food?  On  lands  iike  ours,  of  medium  character, 
in  point  of  f?rii!ity,  mnnures  in  abundance  are  indispensa- 
ble. These  cani^ot  be  c  uained  in  sufficient  qjaniities, 
esj  ecially  in  interior- situations,  but  by  cattle.  A  rich 
a^^L'icuitural  couniry  must  be  in  general  a  c.-jitle-raiiing 
country.  New-England  cannot  become  a  great  caitle 
rai^riiog  country,  unless  it  mike  provision  for  their  sup- 
port during  our  long  cold  winters,  by  raising  roots  upon 
ah  extensive  scale.  Instead  of  the  farmer's  unaerstock- 
ing  his  pasture  ground,  as  is  the  case  in  most  parts  of 
the  country,  through  fear  of  not  boing  able  to  maintain 
his  summer  stock  on  his  winter  food,  this  system  ena- 
bles him  to  stock  liis  pasturps  up  to  their  full  power. 
We  therefore  recommend,  that  in  addition  to  the  intro- 
duction of  ruta-baga,  mangei-wurtzel,  cabbages,  and 
common  turnij)s  into  the  regular  rotations,  that  the  far- 
mer appropriate  every  year  more  or  less  land  of  a  suit- 
able quality  to  carrots  and  parsnips,  which  requiring  un- 
common preparation,  are  not  so  suitable  to  enter  the  list 
of  a  general  rotation  of  crops. 

Mr.  Nicholson's  calculation  of  the  value  of  crops,  and 
the  expense  of  raising  each,  may  be  some  guide  in  mak- 
ing selections  for  rotations.  He  supposes  the  average 
crops  of  wheat,  barley,  and  Indian  corn,  at  the  greatest 
extent,  may  be  ^50  per  acre  when  the  grain  is  ready  for 
market;  crops  of  rye,  oats,  and  peas,  not  more  than 
two  thirds  of  this  amount;  buckwheat,  still  loss.  From 
five  to  six  hundred    bushels   of  ruta-baga,    or    mangel- 


88  FALLOWING. 

wurtzel  may  be  had  from  an  acre,  and  worth,  at  18  cents, 
^100  per  acre.  And  these  roots  are  suitable  for  almost 
all  the  |)urposes  of  grain  for  live  slock.  As  grain  crops 
are  nfa'iy  as  expensive  as  roots,  the  clear  profit  will  be 
irom  ^oO  to  ^50  per  acre  less  than  roots. 

The  following  six  years'  rotation  recommended  by  a 
writer  in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository, 
may  be  a  good  one  for  farmers  in  general  in  New-Eng- 
land. 

1st  year.  After  breaking  up  the  sward  is  oats  sown, 
thick,  to  be  cut  for  fodder. 

2  I  year.     Potatoes  or  Indian  corn,  or  both. 

3d  year.     Ruta-baga. 

4th  year.  Barley  or  wheat,  sown  with  clover  and 
herds'-grass,  or  red  top. 

5th  year.     Clover  mowed. 

6th  year.     Herds'-grass  and  clover. 

In  the  autumn  of  the  sixth  year,  the  land  to  be  brok- 
en up,  and  on  the  seventh  year  the  same  rotation  re- 
commenced. 

It  is  difficult  to  designate  particularly  the  most  suita- 
ble changes  of  crops ;  as  they  are  more  exactly  to  be 
ascertained  by  the  known  product  of  lands,  when  pro- 
perly cultivated.  But  such  crops,  in  rotation,  as  are 
found  to  3  ield  most  clear  profit,  and  are  at  the  same 
time  best  suited  to  follow  each  other,  should  usually  be 
cultivated,  after  making  due  allowance  for  the  greater 
exhaustion  of  the  soil,  occasioned  by  the  growing  of 
some  more  than  others. 

IN^DIAN    CORN. 

This  plant  may  justly  be  considered  the  most  valua- 
ble in  the  whole  circle  of  American  husbandry.  It  is 
food  for  most  animals,  and  yields  a  great  increase  of 
grain.  It  is  not  so  liable  to  injury  as  other  grain?.  As 
food  to  man  it  is  remarkably  wholesome  and  nourishing, 
and  admits  of  the  greatest  variety  in  its  preparations. 
In  cultivating  it  the  soil  is  cleaned  and  lightened,  prepa- 
rative to  other  crops:  though  it  is  inferior  to  prepara- 
tions with  au".i{iorating  crops  giving  more  shade  and 
moisture. 

The  proper  soils  for  this  grain  are  the  sandy,  sandy 
loam,  gravelly-loam,    and    rich    red,    or  dark-coloured 


FALLOWING.  '•^^ 

earth?,  which  hare  no  clay  in  them.  Gold  or  wet 
loams  are  as  unsuitable  as  stiff  clays,  unless  well  mana- 
g-ed. 

It  is  not  considered  best  to  plant  maize  on  green 
sward  ground.  It  is  apt  to  be  backward  in  its  growth, 
and  not  to  ripen  so  well.  (See  Rotation  of  Crops.)  But 
if  this  is  to  be  made  the  first  crop,  the  ground  should 
be  ploughed  in  the  fall,  or  rather  soon  hWgt  mowing, 
re-ploughed  in  the  spring  and  made  mellow  with  the 
harrow ;  and  if  very  wet,  it  should  be  formed  into 
ridges.  As  a  general  rule  no  more  land  should  be  plant- 
ed than  can  be  made  very  rich,  and  kept  perfectly 
©lear  of  weeds.* 

If  20  loads  of  good  manure  can  be  afforded  to 
an  acre,  it  should  be  spread  on  the  surface  and  plough- 
ed in;  if  but  ten  it  should  be  put  into  the  holes.  Or 
spread  a  quantity  of  green  manure  over  the  ground  as 
evenly  as  possible,  and  put  the  compost  manure  into 
the  hill,  or  drills.  In  this  way  the  rotted  manure  will 
supply  nourishment  to  the  plants  the  first  part  of  the 
season,  and  the  fresh  manure,  which  was  spread  over 
the  whole  surface,  will  assist  the  plants  most  materially 
abont  the  time  the  ears  are  filling. 

The  seed  should  be  taken  from  the  finest  ears,  and 
if  possible  from  the  largest  and  most  perfect  plants, 
particularly  from  those  which  have  two  or  three  ears. 
It  is  said  that  by  selecting  the  eariiesi  and  ri')est  seed, 
the  succeeding  crop  will  be  a  number  of  days  earlier. 
Shell  the  seed  by  hand,  rejecting  about  an  inch  at  each 
end,  and  all  imperfect  seeds.  A  change  of  seed  will 
doubtless  be  found  serviceable. 

If  planting  a  second  time  should  become  necessary, 
we  would  advise  to  soak  the  seed  about  twelve  hours 
in  a  strong  soiiition  of  saltpetre,  or  common  salt,  and 
then  rolling  in  gypsum.  This  is  said  to  have  ^  a  very 
imporlant  effect  in  bringing  the  crop  forward.  To  pro- 
tect corn  from  animais,  take  equal  parts  of  tar  and  tr.;in 
oil,  siDimer  them  together  and  turn  them  over  the  corn, 

When  if.  is  planted  on  sward  recenfly  turned  over,  holes  jhoiiM 
be  made  quite  Thrui!2;h  the  ir.rroTr-slic  e.  aui.!  duiis;  piu  ir*  the 
holes.  If  this  caution  is  not  observed  the  crop  ^i\\  be  uneven, 
as  <he  roots,  whare  the  fi-rr^^w  alice  i=«  thickest,  wiii  have  but  lit" 
tie  benefit  from  die  rotting  of  the  sward. 
9 


9©  FALLOWING. 

after  having  ssoaked  it  well ;  then  sift  on  ashes,  lime,  er 
l)laster,  stirring  it  till  each  kernel  has  taken  up  as  mucii 
as  will  permit  its  being  conveniently  handled.  Another 
method  is,  to  soak  the  seed,  then  roll  it  in  sulphur,  and 
plant  it  immediatelj.  Perhaps  a  little  sulphur  mixed 
with  gypsum  might  render  the  seed  sufficiently  obnox- 
ious to  birds,  &.C. 

The  time  of  planting  is  that  at  which  the  earth  first 
acquires  the  warmth  necessary  to  vegetation,  and  which 
is  sufficiently  indicated  by  her  spontaneous  productions. 
[{  we  plant  eariier,  the  seed  is  apt  to  rot ;  if  later,  the 
ripening  of  the  crop  is  hazarded.  The  old  ladian  rule, 
is  to  plant  when  the  leaves  of  the  white-oak  are  about 
the  size  of  a  mouse's  ear  ;  which  generally  takes  place, 
between  the  2uth  of  May  and  the  first  of  June.  Thii 
"will  answer  for  all  soils  except  dry  ones,  which  should 
lie  planted  a  little  earlier  than  this  rule  directs. 

There  is  some  difference  of  practice,  without  any 
great  difference  of  result,  in  the  modes  of  planting.  If 
land  is  rough  or  strong,  and  the  object  is  to  make  the 
most  of  labour^  the  better  way  is  to  plant  in  hilis  ;  but 
if  the  soil  is  rich  and  easy  to  till,  and  the  object  is  te 
make  the  most  of  land^  the  drill  method  should  be  cho- 
sen. According  to  the  first  method,  let  the  ground  be 
Gut  into  squares,  by  shoal  furrows  with  a  horse  plough, 
(say  half  as  deep  as  for  common  ploughing)  from  three 
to  four  feet  apart,  according  to  the  kinds  of  corn  to  be 
planted.  If  nearly  a  shovel  full  of  dung  is  to  be  put 
into  each  hill,  the  furrowing  must  consequently  be  pret- 
ty deep.  If  care  is  taken  in  planting  to  place  the 
kernels  four  or  five  inches  apart,  four  or  five  stalks  can 
stand  in  each  hill  to  advantage ;  but  if  thrown  promis- 
cuously in,  they  generally  fall  together,  and  three  are 
sufficient  for  a  hill.  When  planted  in  drills,  the  rows 
should  be  about  four  or  five  feet  apart,  and  the  corn 
about  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and  covered  about 
two  inches  deep.  The  rows  must  always  run  north 
and  south,  that  the  corn  may  receive  equally  the  bene- 
fit of  the  sun.  At  other  times  two  rows  of  potatoes,  or 
mangei-wurtzel,  are  interposed  between  as  many  rows  of 
cprn,  which  is  said  to  be  a  profitable  practice. 

Corn  should  not  be  annoyed  with  running  beans, 
wkich  by  winding  round  the  stalks  and  ears,  cramp  them 


FALLOWING.  91 

in  their  growth,  and  sometimes  bend  them  to  the  ground. 
Pumpkins  should  not  be  planted  with  corn,  except  along 
the  margin  of  the  field  ;  they  rob  the  hills  of  much  vegeta- 
ble food,  and  by  their  shade  shut  out  too  much  the  in- 
fluence of  the  sun. 

No  crop  while  growing,  requires  more  attention  than 
corn.  To  prevent  it  from  being  stunted  at  the  outset, 
it  is  adviseabie  to  apply  some  stimulants  to  the  plants 
when  very  young;  such  as  bog-dirt,  ashes,  or  gypsum, 
and  this  should  be  repeated  at  the  third  hoeing.  When 
the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high,  the  plough 
must  pass  in  the  intervals,  making  two  furrovv^s  in  each, 
turned  from  the  rows  ;  the  weeds  killed  and  a  little  fresh 
earth  drawn  about  the  plants  with  a  hoe.  In  about  half 
a  month  after,  plough  again,  turning  the  earth  towards 
the  rows,  and  draw  up  some  more  earth  with  the  hoe. 
Just  before  the  corn  spindles  give  it  the  last  ploughing 
and  hoeing  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  last,  keeping  the 
plough  as  far  as  possible  from  the  hills.  Avoid  the 
harrow  at  weeding  ;  it  leaves  the  earth  close  and  heavy, 
and  injures  the  crop.  Hoeing  when  the  ground  is  soak- 
ed with  water  is  also  disadvantageous. 

The  practice  of  making  very  large  hills  is  injurious, 
by  diverting  the  water,  and  preventing  the  intiuence  of 
the  sun  upon  the  lower  roots,  subjeciing  the  plant  to 
the  exertion  of  sending  out  new  sets  of  roots,  at  a  suit- 
able distance  from  the  surface,  and  causing  it  to  be  more 
frequently  broken  by  winds.     (See  Hoeing.) 

The  growth  of  suckers  is  injurious  to  the  crop,  and 
ought  to  be  either  pulled  up,  or  bent  down  to  the  ground 
and  covered  with  earth  sufficient  to  kill  them  ;  this,  by 
not  wounding  the  principal  stalk  is  no  doubt  the  best 
way. 

If  this  crop  is  harvested  too  early,  it  will  lose  much 
by  shrinking.  It  should  not  be  topped  before  the  grains 
have  somewhat  hardened.  It  is  probably  the  best  plan 
to  cut  up  the  stalks  by  the  roots,  some  days  after  the 
visual  time  for  topping,  and  set  it  up  in  shocks  to  harden. 
In  this  way  it  is  supposed,  the  ears  derive  the  same 
nourishment  from  the  stalk  as  when  standing;  much  fod- 
der is  saved,  and  the  ground  is  ready  to  be  ploug;hed  in 
preparation  for  aaother  crop. 


92 


FALLOWING. 


Tlie  husbandman  with  bad  manag'ement,  has  been 
known  to  receive  but  live  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  for 
all  his  toil !  and  the  skilful  husbandman,  upon  the  same 
qiinntitv  of  ground,  has  been  known  to  raise  upwards  of 
172  bushels.* 

On  suitable  soils,  well  tilled  and  manured,  an  average 
crop  is  supposed  to  be  40  bushels. 

Mr.  Valentine^  of  Massachusetts,  raised  last  year  116 
bushels  on  an  acre.  The  whole  expense,  including  ^2h 
for  manure,  was  g44. 

Mr.  Lefferts^  of  New-York, raised  125  bushels  in  1821, 
on  a  heavy  loam,  by  the  following  culture.  With  a 
heavy  harrov/,  levelled  old  corn  hills,  ploughed  10th 
April,  harrowed  twice,  furrowed  3  inches  deep,  4  & 
4  1-2  feet  apart,  put  half  a  shovel  full  of  compost  ma- 
nure in  each  hill.  Planted  3d  May,  6  kernels  to  hill  ; 
steeped,  tarred,  and  rolled  in  ashes.  Ploughed  3d  June, 
turning  the  earth  from  the  hill.  Dressed  with  hoe  8th 
June,  after  which  it  was  ploughed  five  times. 

Corn  is  sometimes  cultivated  with  a  view  only  to  the 
forage  it  may  yield;  and  is  sown'  broad  cast,  at  the  rate 
of  3  1-2  bushels  to  the  acre.  Sweet  corn  is  supposed  to 
be  best,  on  a  rich  soil  it  will  produce  about  12  tons  of 
green  fodder  in  4  months.  This  can  be  fed  out  to 
cattle,  at  the  tin^e  when  our  pastures  usually  fail  ;  or 
the  whole  can  be  mown  when  the  blossom  begins  to 
appear,  dried  as  quick  as  possible,  and  housed  for  fod- 
der. The  ground  may  be  immediately  ploughed,  and 
sov/n  with  any  winter  grain.  Thus  it  proves  a  iallow 
crop. 

Indian  corn  contains  a  large  proportion  of  farinaceous 
matter,  and  this  substance  experience  has  shown  to  be 
very  nutritive.  It  is  probable,  says  Dr.  Gorhara,  that  if 
In;]ian  corn  were  submitted  to  the  same  processes  as 
wheat  before  it  should  be  used  as  tbod,  it  would  be 
eqii  »lly  nutritious,  because  the  proportion  o  solub  e  and 
nutritive  matter  would  be  increased  by  the  removal  of 
its  cuticle  and  fibrous  substance. 

The  most  celebrated  travellers  assert  that  when  the 
Europeans  landed  at  St.    Domiiigo,  one  of  the  first  ali- 


*  Messrs.  J.  &  M.  Pratt  of  Ea'^ton,  Madisf>n  counly,  N.  York, 
in  lO^^?,  rai-ed  172  1-4  bushels  of  corn  on  an  acre. — See  New- 
ilngland  farmer,  p.  334. 


FALLOWING.  93 

meats  the  natives  offered  them  was  maize  ;  that  during 
the  course  of  their  navigation  they  found  it  at  the  An- 
tilles, in  Mexico  and  Peru,  forming  every  where  the  ba- 
sis of  the  nourishment  of  the  people  of  these  countries , 
— that  this  plant,  whose  post  is  so  imposing  and  so  ma- 
jestic constituted  the  ornament  of  the  gardens  of  the 
palaces  of  the  Incas ; — that  it  was  with  its  fruit  the 
hand  of  chosen  virgins  prepared  the  bread  of  the  sa- 
crifices ;  and  thus  in  tine,  gratitude,  this  sentiment  so 
delicious  for  worthy  hearts,  had  determined  even  the 
rude  people  of  the  isles  and  continent  of  this  new  he- 
misphere, to  institute  annual  festivals  on  occasion  of  the 
harvests  of  maize. 

Maize,  then,  this  most  excellent  cosmopolite  plant, 
which  seems  adapted  to  so  many  climates,  and  created 
for  a  benefit  to  so  many  regions  of  the  globe,  may  be 
justly  considered  as  one  of  the  best  gifts  of  nature  to 
mankind. 

WHEAT. 

Bountiful  as  nature  has  been  to  man  in  the  abundance 
and  diversity  of  her  gifts,  it  is  tor  this  plant,  observes 
Mr.  Russell^  he  ought  to  be  particularly  grateful.  It 
has  in  every  age  furnished  the  principal  nourishment  of 
civilized  man  ;  and  while  it  is  singularly  qualified  to  sus- 
tain his  health  and  life,  and  to  administer  to  his  com- 
forts and  even  to  his  enjo3^ments,  it  appears  to  be  spe- 
cially priviledged  to  dwell  with  him  in  every  region  of 
the  earth,  and  every  where  to  promote  and  to  reward 
his  industry. 

Common  wheat  has  many  varieties ;  some  of  which 
are  bearded,  and  others  bald ;  some  oval  and  others 
round  or  square  ;  some  yellow  or  red,  and  others  white  ; 
some  soft  and  others  flinty. 

It  grows  vigorously  in  clay,  in  loam,  in  calcareous 
earth,  and  even  sand,  when  aided  by  manures,  or  in 
succession  to  peas,  clover,  kc.  But  after  whatever 
kind  of  crop,  this  grain  is  cultivated,  the  soil  should 
constantly  undergo  that  degree  of  preparation  that  may 
be  sufficient  to  bring  it  into  a  state  of  considerable  pul- 
verization and  mellowness  ;  for  whoever  has  watched 
the  progress  of ^ this  crop  in  such  lands  as  have  been 
well  broken  down  and  reduced,  and  in  such  as  have  been 
9^ 


94  FALLOWING. 

left  ill  a  lumpy  crude  state,  at  the  time  of  sowing,  must 
have  remarked  the  cUfl'crence  to  have  been  very  con- 
siderable. Experience  has  shewn,  that  this  crop  should 
never,  where  it  can  be  avoided,  be  grown  after  other 
kinds  of  grain  crops,  as  rye,  barley,  or  oats ;  and  that 
animal  manure  should  not  be  applied  for  it,  but  for 
such  crops  as  may  precede  it.  Clover  or  other  vegeta- 
ble substances,  or,  where  they  can  be  obtained,  mineral 
manures,  should  be  alone  employed  as  the  means  of  en- 
riching the  soil.  Gypsum  may  be  strewed  over  the 
ground  at  the  time  of  sowing  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three 
bushels  to  the  acre. 

The  wheat  intended  for  seed  should  be  some  of  the 
best  grown  of  the  crop  ;  it  should  be  well  ripened  be- 
fore it  is  harvested,  and  if  there  be  any  smut  in  the 
crop,  the  part  intended  for  seed  should  not  be  put  in 
the  mow  with  the  rest.  Changing  the  seed,  or  sowing 
it  on  a  different  soil,  is  supposed  to  prevent  it  from  de- 
generating. Before  sowing,  pass  it  through  a  screen, 
to  take  out  the  seeds  of  weeds,  fee.  To  prevent  smut, 
steep  or  float  the  wheat  in  brine,  urine,  lye  of  wood 
ashes,  &c.  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  say  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours ;  skim  off  the  light  kernels  which 
float,  take  out  and  before  sowing  sprinkle  the  seed  with 
lime,  leached  ashes,  or  plaster  of  Paris.  The  quantity 
of  seed  recommended  for  an  acre  varies  from  five  pecks 
to  two  bushels  ;  six  pecks  is  the  usual  quantity.  Lands 
weedy  and  of  a  deep  rich  soil  require  more,  as  well  as 
lands  newly  broken  up.  The  size  of  the  grain  and  the 
time  of  sowing  must  determine  in  a  great  measure  the 
quantity  to  be  sown;  for  the  later  it  is  sown  the  more 
will  be  required. 

With  respect  to  the  time  of  sowing  winter  wheat 
there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion.  About  the  middle  of 
September,  however,  is  the  prevailing  opinion,  if  the 
ground  is  in  a  suitable  condition.  (Respecting  getting  in 
the  crop,  see  article  Harrow.)  If  it  is  likely  to  grow 
too  large  before  winter,  the  best  way  is  to  feed  or  mow 
it  down;  this  will  make  it  more  strong  and  productive. 
Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as  the  ground 
can  be  made  mellow.  Some  of  the  best  crops  raised  ia 
New  England  were  sown  in  the  month  of  March.  The 
<|uality  of  this  wheat  is  inferior,  and    the  '-crop    usually 


FALLOWING.  '  ^ 

smaller,  but  it  is  cultivated  generally  with  more  suc- 
cess. 

It  is  believed,  there  is  nothing  gained  by  letting  wheat 
stand  till  it  is  fully  ripe  ;  that  is,  tiii  the  heads  turn 
down,  before  it  is  harvested.  If  it  stand  so  long  con- 
sivlerable  wiil  be  shelled  out  before  it  is  got  into  the 
barn;  and  even  if  the  bulk  in  this  case  be  greater,  the 
weight  may  not  be  increased ;  and  it  is  known  that  the 
best  flour  is  made  irom  the  earliest  harvested  wheat. 
If  it  is  aifected  with  rust,  cut  it  down  as  soon  as  the  ker- 
nai  becomes  affected  ;  it  will  be  the  only  way  to  pre- 
serve the  crop,  and  it  is  said  to  improve  after  being  cut. 
The  same  ma}'^  be  said  of  rye.  On*^  acre  is  a  large 
day's  work  for  a  reaper.  It  should  be  remove!  to  the 
barn  when  there  is  a  slight  dew. 

Some  calculators  have  supposed,  that  the  average 
produce  of  this  grain  over  the  whole  face  of  the  globe, 
will  not  exceed  six  bushels  reaped,  for  one  bushel 
sown.  Mr.  Livingston  has  calculated  the  average  quan- 
tity of  wheat  per  acre,  upon  unmanured  lands,  through- 
out the  middle,  northern,  and  eastern  states,  without 
taking  in  the  new  settlements  where  the  yield  is  much 
greater,  to  be  thirteen  bushels.  In  the  southern  Atlan- 
tic states,  it  is  much  less.  It  appears  that  in  the  single 
district  of  Newbury — Newtown,  Massachusetts,  there 
were  raised  in  1817,  by  thirty-two  persons,  on  lifty- 
eight  acres  of  land,  thirteen  hundred  apd  twenty-tive 
bushels  of  wheat;  making  an  average  of  twenty-two 
bushels  to  the  acre,  an  average  greater,  it  is  believed, 
than  that  of  some  of  the  most  favoured  wheat  countries, 
llr.  Emery  raised  thirty-three  bushels  on  an  acre  ;  and 
Mr.  JVezcall  eighty-one  bushels  on  two  and  a  half  acres. 
In  New  Hampshire,  five  persons,  raised  on  eleven  acres, 
three  hundred  and  fifty-two  bushels,  equal  to  thir- 
ty-two bushels  to  the  nzve.  If  farmers  will  look  over 
the  accounts  of  late  experiments  on  spring  wheat,  even 
on  the  sea-board  in  Massachusetts,  where  it  is  supposed 
to  be  the  most  subject  to  blight,  they  will  find  the  aver- 
age produce  to  exceed  twenty  bushels.  Mr.  Tuft  of 
Uxbridge,  Mass.  estimates  the  quantity  of  whea  raised 
in  that  town  for  three  years  preceding  1814,  to  have 
been  one  thousand  bushels  annually.  We  beiieve  there- 
fore that  its  produce  is  much  more  certain   and  profita- 


90  FALLOWING. 

ble  than  is  ;^eneraUy  supposed.  The  expense  of  culti- 
vating wheat,  is  thouj^ht  to  be  only  about  half  that  of 
Indian  corn.  Is  it  not  unaccoimtable  then,  when  all 
these  things  are  considered,  that  our  farmers  should  ne- 
glect this  valuable  crop  so  much  ?  We  hope  they  will 
be  induced  to  enter  upon  its  culture  with  spirit. 

For  interesting  particulars  respeciing  its  cultivation,  see 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository^  vol.  4,  5,  and  6 — 
Plough  Boij^  vol.  \,p.  122,228,  229,  371. 

RYE. 

There  is  but  one  kind  of  rye  ,  but  this  may  be  made 
either  winter-rye,  or  spring-rye,  by  gradually  habituat- 
ing it  to  different  times  of  sowing.  Take  winter-rye, 
for  instance,  and  sow  it  later  and  later  each  fall,  and  it 
may  at  length,  be  sown  in  the  spring ;  and  then  it  be- 
comes spring  rye.  On  the  contrary,  sow  spring-r3'e 
Tery  late  in  the  fall,  at  first,  and  you  may  gradually 
sow  it  earlier  each  succeeding  year,  until  it  may  even 
be  sown  in  May,  and  used  the  first  season  for  pasture, 
or  mowing,  and  then  grown  to  perfection  the  second 
year. 

Soils  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  texture,  are  the  most  na- 
tural for  rye.  Weak  land  will  produce  it,  and  it  does 
not  exhaust  the  soil  so  much  as  other  grain.  These 
circumstances  render  it  peculiarly  precious  to  poor  soils, 
and  poor  people — to  mountains  of  great  elevation  and  to 
high  northern  latitudes. 

A  small  quantity  of  dung  or  mud,  about  half  the  quan- 
tity used  for  other  grain  lands,  will,  if  laid  upon  rye 
ground,  greatly  increase  the  value  of  the  crop. 

Rye  is  subject  to  rust,  but  seldom  to  smut.  If  affect- 
ed with  rust,  the  same  management  must  be  used  as  for 
wheat.  The  seed  should  be  carefully  selected,  and 
thoroughly  washed  in  lime-water,  as  the  means  best 
calculated  to  prevent  the  ergot ;  a  disease  to  which  it 
is  most  liable,  and  which  is  supposed  to  be  an  effect  of 
too  great  humidity. 

The  quantity  of  winter  rye  usually  sown,  is  about  a 
bushel,  if  sown  early  ;  of  spring-rye,  a  bushel  and  a 
half  or  more.  If  the  grain  is  small,  less  is  required. 
The  seed  should  undergo  the  same  preparation  as 
wheat. 


FALLOWING.  97 

From  the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, is  the  best  time  for  sowing-.  A  poor  soil  requires 
earlier  sowing  than  a  rich  one.  When  early  sown,  it 
affords  excellent  pasture  both  in  the  fall  and  spring.  If 
the  growth  is  luxuriant  feeding  it  is  necessary.  Spring- 
rye  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  the   ground  will  permit. 

Rye,  intended  for  fam.ily  use,  should  be  harvested  as 
early  as  the  grain  can  be  prevented  from  shrinking, 
and  let  lie  on  the  ground  a  day  or  two,  to  harden,  and 
well  dried  before  housed.  The  flour  will  be  whiter, 
and  perhaps  nothing  lost  in  weight.  Nearly  all  kinds  of 
grain  suffer  on  absorption,  if  they  stand  on  the  stalk  af- 
ter being  ripe  or  fit  for  gathering.  Rye  is  thought  to 
be  more  liable  to  this  kind  of  diminution,  than  any  oth- 
er kind  of  grain,  except  wheat.  When  mildewed.  Rye, 
by  standing  too  long  before  it  is  cut,  not  only  loses  a 
part  of  its  heaviness,  but  it  generates  a  rank  quality, 
which  is  neither  agreeable  nor  wholesome. 

Although  we  cannot  by  any  means,  approve  of  sow- 
ing rj^e  for  many  years  in  succession  on  the  same 
ground  ;  yet  for  the  benefit  of  these  who  intend  to  per- 
sist in  the  practice,  we  will  extract  an  excellent  sys- 
tem  of  management  from  the  Farmers  Assistant. 

The  soil  most  suitable  for  rj/e,  is  usually  that  wiiich 
is  most  benefitted  by  the  use  of  gypsum,  it  quicldy  cov- 
ers the  ground  with  a  sward  of  white  clover.  Sow  plas- 
ter in  the  spring,  on  the  growing  crop  of  winter  rye  ; 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fail,  turn  in  the  clover.  In 
the  spring,  sow  spring-rye  ;  and  immediately  atter  this 
is  taken  oif,  turn  in  the  stubbie,  &lc.  for  a  crop  of  win- 
ter-rye ;  and  in  the  spring  repeat  the  process  of  manur- 
ing with  gypsum,  as  before,  lor  a  crop  of  spring-rye  ; 
and  thus  proceed  with  these  crops  alternately.  In  this 
way,  by  the  addition  of  the  spring  crop,  nearly  double 
the  amount  of  grain  can  be  obtained. 

BARLEY. 

Barley  is  adapted  to  various  soils  and  climates  ;  it  is 
less  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  more  easily 
pr\serve  !  than  other  grain.  In  limes  of  scarcity,  it  is  a 
good  substitute  for  wheat,  and  at  all  times,  yields  a  bever- 
age, under  the  names  of  beer,  ale  or  porter,  equally 
wholesome  and  invigorating^.     It  is  besides,  a  food,    on 


98  FALLOWIXG. 

which  cattle  do  well,  and  horses  arrive  at  their  greatest 
possible  perlectioQ. 

Though  not  so  nice  in  relation  to  soil,  as  either  wheat 
or  rye,  still  barley  prefers  a  loose,  warm  and  moist 
(not  wet)  soil,  and  even  grows  remarkably  v/ell  in  a 
sandy  one,  in  succession  to  suitable  crops.  It  requires  a 
soil  in  good  condition,  and,  like  many  other  crops,  turns 
to  poor  account  when  sown  on  such  as  are  poor. 

Mr.  Deane  found  it  to  answer  well  in  a  clayey  soil, 
that  was  scarcely  fit  for  any  other  grain.  It  is  well  cal- 
culated for  New  England,  bearing  drought  well,  and  gen- 
erally 3  ielding  a  good  crop. 

About  two  and  a  half  bushels,  is  a  suitable  quantity 
for  an  acre.  It  receives  essential  benefit  from  being 
soaked  in  lye,  brine,  the  black  water  taken  from  a  re- 
servoir in  the  barn-yard,  or  some  other  fertilizing  li- 
quor. Adding  some  saltpetre  to  the  liquor  in  v/hich  it  is 
soaked,  may  prove  of  great  service.  All  the  oats  and 
poor  seed  that  rise  to  the  top  of  the  water,  should  be 
skimmed  off.  To  prevent  it  from  degenerating,  the 
seed  should  be  frequently  changed.  To  change  the 
kind,  may  also  be  advantageous. 

The  ground  should  have  two  ploughings  at  least. 
As  the  roots  of  barley  extend  deep,  the  ground  should 
be  mellowed  at  least  six  inches.  It  should  be  covered 
Avith  a  short  toothed  harrow,  and  then  a  roller  passed 
ever  it,  which,  besides  other  advantages,  makes  it  tiiier 
into  numerous  stalks.  Sea  weed  is  an  excellent  manure 
for  this  grain. 

It  should  be  sown  as  early  as  the  ground  will  permit, 
and  immediately  after  ploughing,  while  the  ground  is 
moist. 

If  the  blade  grows  rank,  mowing  is  better  than  feed- 
ing with  sheep;  for  the  sheep,  by  biting  lotv,  injure  its 
future  growth. 

Barley  is  ripe,  when  the  red  color  on  the  ear  is  gone 
off,  or  when  the  ears  fall  down  against  the  straw,  and 
the  stalks  have  lost  their  verdure.  No  grain  perhaps 
requires  more  ripening  ;  and  it  is  not  apt  to  shatter  out 
when  very  ripe.  By  lying  a  night  or  two  in  the  devr 
after  it  is  cut,  it  is  supposed  the  beards  will  come  off 
easier.  If  it  is  full  of  weeds,  it  must  lie  in  the  sw^rlh 
kli  they  are  dry.     It  should  be  threshed  soon  after  har- 


FALLOWING.  99 

resting.     Forty  bushels  can  generally  be  obtained  from 
an  acre. 

Some  farmers  have  not  been  successful  with  barley. 
It  was  probably  owing  to  the  want  of  manure^  or  suffi- 
cient ploughing  and  harro-wing  ;  to  degenerated  seed  ;  to 
the  kind  not  being  adapted  to  the  soil ;  or,  to  an  insuffi- 
ciency of  seed,  which  caused  the  grain  to  be  choaked 
with  weeds.  If  the  farmer  has  satistied  himself  as  to 
all  these  particulars,  and  still  finds  himself  unsuccessful, 
he  may  conclude  that  the  soil  or  the  climate  where  he 
lives,  is  unfavourable  to  its  culture. 

BUCK    WHEAT. 

The  principal  excellence  of  this  grain  is  for  making 
an  agreeable  bread  ;  for  the  cakes  made  of  its  Hour, 
if  eaten  while  warm,  are  generail}-  much  relished. — 
When  ground,  or  steam  boiled,' it  U  very  good  for  fat- 
ling  swine,  and  other  animals  :  The  straw  is  useful  for 
caUle  and  sheep,  if  salt  is  spriokied  amongst  it,  when 
staked  :  And  the  flowers  afford  food  for  bees  at  a  season 
when  the  meadows  and  trees  are  nearly  stripped  of 
them. 

A  hght  mell  w  soil  suits  it  best.  It  will  grow  with 
more  indifferent  culture  than,  perhaps,  any  other  grain. 
It  is  much  assisted  by  gypsum,  where  that  manure  is 
suitable  to  the  soil. 

It  should  be  sown  from  half  a  bushel  to  3  pecks  to 
the  acre,  if  the  land  is  good  ;  if  poor  land,  one  bushel 
is  best.  To  wet  the  seed,  and  dry  it  witii  a  sufficient 
sprinkling  of  plaster,  will  much  assist  the  growth.  Rol- 
ling immediately  after  harrowing  has  been  found  useful. 

Buck-wheat  should  be  sown  just  early  enough  for  the 
crop  to  escape  the  frost.  It  is  an  old  maxim  not  to 
sow  it  until  the  chesnut  trees  are  in  full  bloom.  Mr.  Dcane 
says  it  should  not  be  sown  till  after  the  middle  of  May. 
About  the  first  of  July  may  be  considered  the  proper 
time. 

The  crop  when  ripe,  is  cut  with  a  cradle,  left  a  few 
days  to  dry,  raked  in  small  bunches  in  the  morning, 
carted  in  the  heat  of  the  day  to  the  barn,  or  centre  of 
the  field,  and  threshed  out  im.mediately.  It  is  said,  the 
crop  is  easier  raised^  harvested  and  threshed,  than  any 
other. 


100  FALLOWING. 

OATS. 

The  oat  is,  among  grain,  what  the  ass  is  among  ani- 
inals — -very  little  respected,  but  very  extensively  em- 
ployed. In  the  poorest  soil  and  with  the  smallest  pos- 
sible labour,  oats  give  something ;  but  because  they  do 
not  give  much,  (in  circumstances  under  which  other 
grains  would  give  nothing,)  we  infer,  that  the  grain  it- 
self is  a  poor  one.  This  is  considered  a  better  crop 
than  barley  to  sow  grass  seeds  with.  Oats  succeed  well 
after  almost  every  sort  of  green  and  root  crop,  but  should 
uot  be  cultivated  after  wheat,  rye,  or  barley,  where  it 
can  possibly  be  avoided.  In  a  succession  of  crops,  oati 
may  sometimes  be  sown  to  advantage  the  first  year  af- 
ter the  breaking  up,  before  the  land  can  be  made  mel- 
low and  deep  enough  for  oiher  crops.  (See  rotation 
of  crops.)  Being  hardy  they  vmy  be  cuhivated  upon 
almost  any  kind  of  soii ;  but  are  most  productive  on 
such  as  aie  strong,  nch,  and  adhesive. 

The  quantity  recommended  to  be  sown,  by  different 
writers  varies  from  one  and  a  half  to  four  bushels  per 
acre  ;  from  two  to  three  bushels,  however,  may  be  con- 
sidered most  proper.  To  change  the  seed  occasionally 
is  recommended. 

Generally,  it  is  best  to  sow  oats  as  soon  as  the  ground 
ean  be  properly  prepared  in  the  spring;  but  where  land 
is  not  liable  to  be  much  affected  by  drought,  they  may 
be  sown  at  an}  time  that  will  enable  the  crop  to  ripen 
before  the  close  of  the  season.  A  late  crop  of  oats  is 
very  effectual  in  destroying  weeds.  It  would  be  a  great 
improvement  to  have  the  seed  steeped,  and  the  land 
roiled,  as  for  barley.  In  whatever  way  they  are  culti- 
rated,  they  require  the  ground  to  be  well  stirred  up  and 
mellowed,  and  to  be  in  go^d  con  iition.  It  is  a  mistaken 
notion,  though  entertained  by  many,  that  slight  culture 
will  answer  for  this  crop,  or  that  this  grain'  can  be  cul- 
tivated, to  any  advantage,  in  poor  lands,  without  man- 
ure.    Gypsum  is  a  suitable  manure  for  oats. 

The  crop  should  be  harvested  rather  green,  as  this 
makes  the  str;iw  much  better  for  fodder,  without  any 
injury  to  the  grain.  Besides,  as  oats  are  extremely  lia- 
ble to  shed  on  being  cut  down,  cutting  the  crop  a  iesv 
days  before  it  is  perfec'iv  n;*'^,  wil  be  a  consi  ■crable 
saving  in  grain.     The  straw  in  so  vdiuable  a  fodder,  it  is 


FALI^OWING.  lOl 

better  to  cradle  than  to  reap  this  crop.  Though  ^hey 
should  be  well  dried  on  the  ground  atler  cutting,  they 
should  not  be  raked  or  handled  at  all,  when  they  are 
in  the  driest  state.  It  should  rather  be  done  in  morn- 
ings and  evenings,  when  the  straw  is  made  limber  and 
pliable  by  the  moisture  of  the  air.  V/hen  housed,  they 
will  pack  closer  than  other  grain,  and  therefore  a  little 
more  caution  is  required  to  prevent  their  heating.  Oats 
make  a  good  substitute  for  hay,  if  mowed  while  green ; 
and  this  may  be  more  profitable  than  suffering  them  to 
ripen  when  there  is  a  prospect  of  scarcity  of  this  article. 

BULLET. 

(Panicum    miliaceum,^ 

The  stalks  and  leaves  of  this  plant  resemble  those  of 
Indian  corn,  though  much  smaller.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  three  or  four  feet.  A  sandy  soil  suits  it  best. 
It  bears  drought  admirably  well.  It  is  said  to  produce 
as  large  a  quantity  of  grain  as  Indian  corn  ;  when  culti- 
vated in  drills  three  feet  apart  and  six  inches  in  the 
rows;  but  owing  to  the  difficulty  in  saving  the  crop  on 
account  of  birds,  of  its  ripening  unequally,  and  its  shell- 
ing out,  it  is  generally  thought  best  to  sow  it  broad  cast 
and  cut  it  when  in  milk  for  fodder. 

-  Mr.  Reeder,  of  Pennsylvania,  sowed  one  peck  to  the 
acre  in  May,  and  put  in  four  acres  ;  cat  it  middle  of  Au- 
gust, and  dried  it  in  the  sun  two  or  three  days.  He  had 
75  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and  six  tons  of  fodder 
on  four  acres.     His  cattle  relis/ied  it  very  well.    "^ 

It  is  stated  in  the  Plough  Boy,  that  millet  sowed  in 
June  on  good  ground  will  give  from  two  to  four  tons  of 
'fodder,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  of  seed,  eoual 
to  corn  for  fattening-  hogs.  It  is  cultivated  in  Pinns^  Iva- 
nia  and  Maryland  as  a  fodder-crop,  and  cut  in  the  milk. 
It  is  preferred  in  winter,  by  neat  cattle,  to  clover. 

The  American  Fanner,  gives  the  follov/ii^g  very  flat- 
tering account  of  this  grain.  Millet  sown  from  the  lirst 
of  May,  to  the  20th  June,  has  invariably  furni-:h?J  mora 
fodder  than  could  have  been  obtained  from  grass  under 
similar  circumstances.  On  the  5th  of  May,  tivc  bushels 
were  sown  on  four  acres — on  the  5th  of  Juiy  it  was  bar- 
Tested,  and  estimated  at  four  tons  per  acre.  It  requires 
10 


1 02  FALLOWING. 

in  all  cases,  fine  tilth,  and  as  much  strength  of  soil  as  is 
necessary  to  produce  heovy  oats, 

A  crop  of  fodder  can  be  produced  if  sowed  as  late  as 
the  last  of  Jul}^ 

SEED. 

The  choice  of  seed  intended  to  be  sown,  is  an  object 
of  greater  importance  than  many  farmers  seem  to  ima- 
gine. It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  finest  grain  be  chosen 
for  this  purpose,  unless  it  be  likewise  clear  from  w^eeds. 
In  procuring  seed,  it  should,  therefore,  be  a  rule  with 
the  farmer  to  purchase  or  reserve  such  as  is  the  mast 
full,  plump,  sound,  clean,  and  healthy,  whatever  the  sort 
may  be ;  as  it  is  perhaps  only  in  this  way  that  crops  of 
really  good  grain  can  be  ensured.  It  is  the  same  in 
some  measure  with  plants  as  with  animals,  that  the  pro- 
duce is  in  a  degree  similar  to  that  from  which  it  origina- 
ted. Where  shrivelled-up  and  imperfectly  ripened  seed 
is  sown,  in  general,  but  a  little  of  it  vegetates ;  and  that 
Vfhich  does,  mostly  sends  forth  plants  of  a  weak  and  fee- 
ble kind. 

Whenever  we  perceive  that  what  we  possess  is  dete- 
rioting  or  inferior  to  that  of  others,  no  time  should  be 
lost  to  obtain  by  purchase,  exchange,  and  by  our  own 
exertions  those  kinds  that  promise  a  better  and  more 
certain  yield. 

As  it  is  not  practicable  for  farmers  generally  to  change 
their  seeds  either  annually,  or  even  every  few  years; 
they  must  select  therefore  with  great  care,  the  best  part 
of  their  own  seeds  and  roots  for  future  cultivation. 

Make  frequent  selections  of  the  most  perfect  plants  of 
every  kind,  cultivate  those  by  themselves,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  new  and  improved  stocks  of  seed  of  every 
kind;  and,  when  these  are  ditferent  species^he  careful  to 
set  or  plant  them  as  much  as  100  yards  from  each  other, 
to  prevent  them  from  mixinpc,  and  producing  spurious  or 
degenerated  seeds.  Thus,  in  making  selections  in  wheat, 
search  for  such  heads  as  have  the  largest  seeds,  and  the 
greatest  number  in  each  head.  In  flax,  for  the  longest 
stjilks,  and  such  as  have,  at  the  same  time,  seeds  of  good 
size.  In  pumj>kins,  for  such  stalks  as  bear  the  greatest 
number,  and  these  the  largest,  and  sweetest,  &c. 


FALLOWING.  103 

In  many  kinds  of  plants,  such  as  Indian  corn,  pump- 
kins, &;c.  the  selections  may  be  yearly  repeated,  with- 
out much  inconvenience.  In  others,  such  as  wheat,  bar 
ley,  &c.  yearly  selections  would  be  too  expensive.  In 
such,  let  selections  be  made,  say,  every  eight  years  ;  and 
from  the  seeds  of  the  plants  thus  selected  raise  a  yearly 
stock,  sufficient  to  serve  for  seed.  The  more  constantly 
the  selections  are  made,  however,  the  more  valuable  the 
products  will  be. 

The  inferiority  of  our  seed  grain,  is  attributed  in  a 
great  measure,  by  a  waiter  in  the  Plough  Boij^  to  the 
practice  of  stowing  into  the  barns  every  sort  of  agricul- 
tural produce.  On  the  hay,  new  wheat,  rye,  oats,  bar- 
ley, are  ail  promiscuously  piled,  and  are  taken  thence 
to  be  threshed,  as  occasion  or  convenience  may  dictate. 
It  is  known  to  be  impossible  to  handle  corn  of  any  de- 
scription, after  it  is  ripe  and  dry,  without  shaking  out 
and  dropping  some  of  the  grain.  If  the  wheat  be  upper- 
most, straggling  seeds  will  fall  among  the  barle}^  or  the 
rye  beneath,  and  these  latter,  in  their  turn,  will  conta- 
minate the  oats,  so  that  an  unmixed  sample,  fit  for  seed, 
can  scarce!}^  be  produced,  under  such  treatment. 

Grain  that  is  designed  for  sowing  should  always  be 
kept  well  aired ;  for,  if  deprived  of  air  for  a  considera- 
ble time,  it  will  not  vegetate.  Seed  recently  threshed 
irom  the  straw,  with  a  clear  and  thin  skin  is  best. 

In  order  to  determine  the  goodness  of  seed,  especial- 
ly when  old,  take  fifty  grains  at  random  from  the  par- 
cel ;  sov/  them  in  good  mould,  at  a  proper  depth,  and 
carefully  observe  how  great  a  proportion  fail  of  coming 
up.  They  may  be  sowm  in  a  pot,  and  kept  in  a  warm 
part  of  the  house,  when  too  early  to  plant  in  the  open 
field.  This  method  of  determining  the"*qua}ity  of  seed, 
may  save  much  labor  and  expense. 

Previous  to  sowing,  seeds  should  generally  be  soaked 
about  twelve  hours  in  some  fertilizing  liquor ;  a  strong 
solution  of  saltpetre,  or  common  salt  with  lye  of  wood 
ashes  and  old  urine  is  believed  to  be  best ;  sowing  them 
immediately  after  being  dried,  with  a  sprinkling  of  gyp- 
.«um ;  or  lime,  or  ashes,  when  gypsum  is  not  to  be  had. 
This  is  more  particularly  necessary  when  tlie  v\^\\i  sea- 
son for  sowing  has  elapsed. 


104  FALLOWING. 

SOWING. 

There  are  three  methods  oFcommitting  seeds  to  the 
ground,  viz.  hi  hills  ; — i?i  drills  ; — or  continued  rows  ; 
and  in  the  broadcast  method,,  or  a  cast  of  the  hand. 

The  first  thing*  relating  to  sowings  is  the  preparation 
of  the  ground.  It  may  be  more  or  less  fine,,  according 
to  the  -sort  of  seed  to  be  sown.  Small  seed  require  finer 
earth,  than  those  which  are  larger.  But,  still,  the 
finer  the  better  for  every  thing  ;  for  it  is  best  if  the  seed 
be  actually  pressed  fe^-  the  earth  in  every  part ;  and  ma- 
ny seeds  are  benefitted  by  the  use  of  the  roller.  The 
ground  should  be  good,  either  in  itself,  or  made  good  by 
manure  of  some  sort.  In  all  cases,  the  ground  should 
be  fresh  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  should  be  ploughed,  &:c.  just 
before  the  act  of  sowing,  in  order  that  the  seeds  may 
have  the  full  benefit  of  the  fermentation,  that  takes 
place  upon  every  moving  of  the  earth. 

Sowing  too  early  in  the  spring  may  be  as  injurious  as 
sowing  too  late  ;  for,  if  the  ground  be  not  w^ell  pulver- 
ized, and  sufficiently  warmed,  before  sowing,  the  seeds 
will  come  up  slowly,  and  be  stunted  in  their  growth.  A 
due  temperature  of  the  season,  with  respect  to  heat  or 
cold,  drought  or  wet,  for  all  these  greatly  influence  the 
state  of  the  earth,  is  essentially  necessarj'^,  and  should  be 
carefully  attended  to  by  the  husbandman,  when  he  sows  ; 
but  the  precise  time  most  proper  for  this  work,  cannot, 
by  any  means,  be  invariably  fixed,  because  it  will  al- 
ways depend  on  the  concurrence  of  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances. The  seasons  are  more  or  less  forv/ard,  and  the 
ground  is  more  or  less  dry,  in  some  years,  than  in  oth- 
ers. A  proper  series  of  well  made  observations,  would 
furnish  the  best  rules  in  this  respect,  but  certainly  would 
not  fix  the  time  of  sowing  to  any  particular  day,  or 
week,  for  years  to  come.  Z/mncews' 5  method,  of  observ- 
ing the  foliation  of  trees,  &c:  would  determine  the  pro- 
per times  for  spring  sowing.  Why,  says  Pliny,,  does  the 
husbandman  look  up  to  the  stars,  of  which  he  is  ignor- 
ant, whilst  ever}'  hedge  and  tree  point  out  the  season 
by  the  fail  of  their  leaves  ?  This  circumstance  will  in- 
dicate the  temperature  of  the  air  in  every  climate,  and 
show  whether  the  season  be  early  or  late.  This  consti- 
tutes an  universal  rule  for  the  whole  world  ;  because 
/rees  shed  their  leaves  in   every    country,  according  to 


FALLOWING.  105 

the  difference  of  the  seasons.  This  giyes  a  general  sig- 
nal for  sowing ;  nature  declaring  that  she  has  then  cov- 
ered the  earth  against  the  inclemency  of  the  winter,  and 
enriched  it  with  this  manure. 

It  can,  therefore,  only  be  observed  in  general,  that  it 
is  better  to  sow  early  in  autumn,  than  too  late,  provid- 
ed the  season  will  admit  of  it  ;  because  the  plants  are 
better  able  to  resist  the  severity  of  the  winter,  after  the  j 
have  acquired  a  certain  degree  of  strength  ;  and  their 
roots  being  then  longer,  and  better  fixed  in  the  earth, 
will  be  less  liable  to  be  thrown  out  by  frost. 

A  spot  that  has  been  newly  cleared  by  burning,  may 
be  sown  later  in  autumn  than  other  land,  to  prevent  the 
grain  from  attaining  too  large  a  growth  before  winter, 
which  will  render  it  liable  to  be  killed  by  frost. 

Where  land  is  very  rich,  it  ought  generally  to  have 
more  seed  than  if  it  be  poor ;  and  if  the  size  of  the 
grain  be  large,  the  quantity  sown  should  be  greater  than 
when  the}^  are  small.  When  seed  is  very  large  and  full 
growH,  two  bushels  may  not  be  more  than  equal  to  one 
that  is  sm.all  and  pinched. 

The  expense  of  English  grain,  as  we  call  it,  has 
brought  the  people  of  this  country  into  the  bad  habit  of 
sowing  it  too  thin.  Need  the  farmer  be  told,  that,  in 
all  his  operations,  parsimony  is  never  so  ill  judged,  as 
when  exercised  in  withholding  the  requisite  quantity  of 
seed  ?  The  greatest  increase  from  the  seed,  is  not  to 
be  accounted  the  most  profitable  crop.  A  yield  of  thir- 
teen for  one  may  be  of  more  advantage  than  twenty  for 
one.  If  one  bushel  of  wheat  sowed  on  an  acre,  produce 
twenty,  and  two  bushels  sowed  on  an  acre,  produce 
twenty-six,  it  is  manifestly  more  profitable  to  sovv  the 
two  bushels.  The  farmer  may  consider  one  of  the  two 
bushels  as  yielding  twenty,  and  the  other  six.  But  as 
the  labor  in  both  cases  is  precisely  the  same,  it  is  clear- 
ly more  profitable  in  this  case  to  have  thirteen  for  one 
increase,  than  to  have  twenty  tor  one.  Besides,  by 
sowing  thin,  there  is  room  given  for  weeds  to  rise,  and 
overrun  the  crop,  without  interruption. 

M.    Dvhamel  found,  by    experiments,  that   few  seeds 

will  come   up,    if  buried   more  than  nine   inches  ;  that 

some  will  rise  very  well  at  six  inches  ;    and  that  others 

will  not  rise  if  buried  two  inches.      Those  seedswhicK) 

*10 


1  Oo  FALLOWING. 

in  vegetating,  are  thrown  out  of  the  grountl,  such  aa 
beans,  &:c.  ought  to  be  buried  lightly ;  and,  in  general, 
it  may  be  observed,  that  very  lew  seeds  require  to  be 
deeply  buried.  In  light  soils  they  should  be  buried 
deeper  than  in  stiff  and  cold  ones.  When  the  ground  is 
rolled,  after  sowing,  seeds  will  come  up  with  a  lighter 
covering  of  earth,  than  where  this  is  not  done. 

Much  depends  on  having  the  seeds  sowed  as  evenly  as 
possible  ;  and  for  this  purpose  they  ought  to  be  sowed 
when  the  weather  is  not  windy,  particularly  those 
v>'hich  are  light,  or  easily  wafted  away.  In  sowing  some 
seeds,  it  i^  advisable  to  go  over  the  ground  twice  ;  sow- 
ing one  half  of  the  intended  allowance  of  seed  one  wa}* , 
and  the  other  half  crosswise. 

For  the  proper  time  of  commiting  each  kind  of  seed 
to  the  ground,  and  the  quantity  to  be  sown  of  each,  see 
the  articles  of  v/hich  the  seeds  are  to  be  sown. 

DRILLING 

Is  a  method  of  sowing  seeds  with  a  machine,  by  open- 
ing one  or  more  furrows,  at  proper  distances  from  each 
other,  of  a  deph  suitable  to  the  seed  to  be  sown,  and  at 
rhe  same  time  dressing  the  seeds,  and  covering  them  all 
at  one  operation.  It  is  drawn  by  one  or  more  horses, 
according  to  its  size  ;  or  it  may  be  drawn  by  hand,  or 
pushed  forward,  something  similar  to  the  manner  of 
pushing  a  wheel  barrrow,  where  a  machine  for  drilling  a 
row  at  a  time  is  to  be  used. 

Of  this  latter  description,  may  be  those  for  drilling  in 
the  seeds  of  Indian  corn,  beans,  turnips,  onions,  and 
generally  all  seeds  which  may  be  cultivated  in  roAvs,  or 
drills,  to  advantage,  and  which  have  seeds  of  such 
«hape  as  can  be  properly  dropped  at  suitable  distances 
with  this  implement  of  husbandr3^ 

One  man  with  a  drill,  to  be  drawn  either  by  hand  or 
by  a  horse,  as  the  case  may  require,  will  perform  as 
much  as  six,  eight,  or  ten  men,  in  the  same  length  of 
lime,  without  the  use  of  this  implement  ;  besides,  the 
work  done  with  the  drill,  will  be  found  much  better  ex- 
ecuted, and  with  a  great  saving  of  seed. 

Drills,  however,  are  only  proper  for  grounds  which 
are  clear  of  stones,  and  other  impediments  to  the  use  of 
these  machines. 


HARVESTlNtt.  107 

Those  who  have  used  them  in  this  part  of  Nev/-Eng- 
land,  consider  them  of  ^reat  utility. 

For  the  descriptions  and  drawings  of  the  different 
kinds  of  drills,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  Encyclopedias 
latelj^pubhshed. 


HARVESTING. 

When  crops  are  suffered  to  stand  on  the  gronnd  un- 
til they  have  fully  ripened,  they  exhaust  the  soil  con- 
siderably more,  than  if  taken  off  in  a  green  state.  The 
same  is  the  case  in  regard  to  weeds  of  every  descrip- 
tion. Perhaps  the  remark  is  not  so  fully  applicable  to 
crops  of  roots. 

It  may  therefore  be  said  that  lands  are  negatively  im- 
proved, in  a  saving  of  their  usual  exhaustion,  by  taking, 
such  crops  off  the  ground  as  soon  as  they  have  attained 
a  suflicient  degree  of  maturity.  This  is  a  matter  that  is 
worthy  of  consideration,  especially  when  it  is  remember- 
ed that  several  kinds  of  crops  may  be  severed  from  the 
ground,  without  injury,  in  some  cases  with  a  saving,  be- 
fore they  have  fully  ripened. 

Thus,  Indian  corn  may  be  cut  up  while  the  stalks  are 
still  greenish,  and  set  up  in  shocks  for  the  ears  to  har- 
den ;  and  in  this  way  much  good  fodder  will  be  saved  ; 
the  ground  is  less  exhausted,  and  the  grain  is  said  to  be 
as  good.  By  harvesting  oats  while  the  stalks  are  some- 
what gree^,  they  will  be  the  better  forTodder,  and  the 
grain  will  receive  no  injury  thereby.  The  same  may 
be  observed,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  regard  to  crops  of 
wheat  and  rye. 

Flax  pulled  when  just  out  of  blossom  is  considered  by 
some  the  best.  The  pea-crop  is  injured  by  stasding  too 
long  ;  as  in  that  case  the  hull  becomes  of  little  value. 
In  short,  no  crops  of  grain  derive  any  benefit  from  stan- 
ding until  the  stalks  are  completely  dead,  except  when 
the  grain  is  to  be  used  for  seed. 

The  period  at  which  wheat,  and  in  short,  all  the  oth- 
er sorts  of  white  crops  should  be  cut,  is  when  the  straw 
begins  to  shrink,  and  becomes  white  about  half  an  inch 
below  the  ear;    the  circulation  is  then    cut  off,  and  all 


HARVESTi:>fC. 


further  benefit  from  its  standing  is  at  an  end  ;  the  grain 
has,  in  fact  taken  every  thing"  that  is  requisite  to  per- 
fect it  from  the  cfrounrj. 

By  cutting'  early  it  will  yield  more  and  whiter  flour  ; 
will  waste  less  by  shelling  ;  the  harvesting  will  be  expe- 
dited, so  as  to  prevent  the  waste  of  sheiUng,  by  having 
the  last  cuttings  become  too  ripe  ;  and  as  far  as  the  val- 
ue of  the  straw,  whether  for  fodder  or  other  purposes,  is 
concerned,  an  advantage  is  gained  by  cutting  it  vvhile 
the  circulation  is  going  on,  and  by  that  means  preserv- 
ing a  part  of  the  natural  juices  ;  the  value  of  straw,  like 
that  of  hay,  depending  upon  the  proportion  of  natural 
juices  it  contains,  and  the  pains  which  have  been  taken 
to  preserve  them. 

Some  farmers  determine  when  grain  is  fit  to  cut,  by 
the  following  signs  :  when  the  straw  is  all  turned,  ex- 
cepting at  the  joints  ;  when  the  kernel  becomes  so  hard, 
that  it  cannot  be  mashed  between  the  thumb  and  finger ; 
or  when  the  straw  below  the  ear  becomes  so  dry,  that 
no  juice  can  be  forced  out  by  twisting  it.  If  the  weath- 
er is  fine,  it  can  be  bound,  and  put  into  the  shock  imme- 
diately after  cutting ;  but  if  the  stalk  is  stout,  and  the 
ear  full  and  lieav}^,  it  should  lay  till  the  after  part  of  the 
day;  it  can  then  be  bound,  shocked,  stacked,  or  carted 
with  safety,  provided  it  is  housed  where  it  can  have  free 
air,  or  the  mows  do  not  become  too  large.  Sheaves 
should  generally  not  be  larger  than  can  be  bound  v»ith  a 
single  length  of  the  straw.  Grain  should  be  carted  wiien 
the  air  has  a  small  degree  of  dampness,  to  prevent  scat- 
tering. 

When  a  severe  blight  orrust  has  struck  rj'e  or  wheat, 
it  should  be  cut  immediately,  even  if  the  grain  be  in  the 
milky  state  ;  and  it  should  He  on  the  ground,  but  not  so 
close  as  to  injure  the  heads,  until  such  time  as  the  stalks 
have  become  dry  and  the  grain  somewhat  hardened. 

It  is  mostly  advised  that  such  grain  as  is  much  infest- 
ed with  weeds,  should  be  cut  three  or  four  days  earlier 
than  is  usual,  that  tlie  weeds  may  wither  before  the  grain 
become  too  ripe.  A  single  shower,  or  even  a  day's  gen- 
tle rain,  while  it  lies  in  swath,  will  not  injure  it.  It  is 
a  most  essential  object,  to  cut  the  crop  very  low,  to  pre- 
vent both  the  waste  of  grain,  and  the  loss  of  straw,  the 
unavoidable  consequences  of  high  cutting. 


HARVESTING.  109 

When  grain  is  stacked,  a  light  floor  of  boards  should  be 
mounted  on  four  blocks,  set  in  the  ground,  and  so  high 
as  to  prevent  the  entering  of  vermin.  In  building  a 
stack,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  seed  ends  of  the 
sheaves  in  the  middle,  and  a  little  higher  than  the  outer 
ends. 

As  soon  as  Indian  corn  is  ripe,  it  should  be  harvested. 
If  killed  by  a  frost,  it  should  be  immediately  cut  up  by 
the  roots,  before  the  leaves  have  had  time  to  wither 
and  set  up  in  shock,  having  the  tops  tied  together  to 
keep  out  the  rains.  In  this  way  the  ears  will  ripen,  in 
the  same  manner  as  when  left  to  ripen  in  the  stalk. 

MILDEW    OR    RUST. 

Mildew  is  that  disease  of  wheat  which  causes  the  stalk 
to  become  covered,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  with  a 
redish  or  dark  substance,  something  similar  to  the  rust 
of  iron.  It  is  undoubtedly  occasioned  by  parasitic  plants 
of  the  Fungi  order.  The  spots  in  the  stalks  consist  of 
bunches  of  small/u??oi,  of  the  mushroom  tribe.  What 
is  called  blight  ;  is  apt  to  affect  wheat  sown  on  intervale 
grounds,  adjoining  waters  which  occasioned  a  heavy  fog 
in  the  morning.     We  know  of  no  remedy  for  this. 

Mildew  or  rust  is  the  principle  obstacle  to  the  growth 
of  wheat  and  rye  in  New-Engiand.  It  is  said  generally 
to  commence  in  warm  rains,  or  a  long  season  of  warm, 
moist  weather. 

Mr.  Butler  attributes  it  to  the  application  of  rich  ma- 
nures ;  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat  upon  a  strong,  or  rich 
soil ;  or  their  two  frequent  application,  or  too  long  con- 
tinuance upon  light  or  moderate  soils. 

The  remedies  against  rust  or  mildew  are  : 

1.  Cultivating  hardy  sorts  of  wheat. 

2.  Early  sowing. 

3.  Raising  early  varieties. 

4.  Thick  sowing. 

5.  Changes  of  seed. 

6.  Consolidating  the  soil  after  sowing. 

7.  Using  saline  manures. 

8.  Improving  the  course  of  crops  :  and 

9.  Exlirpating  all  plants  that  are  recepticles  of  rust. 
If  a  field   of  wheat  or   rye   be  evidently  affected,  and 

the  progress  of  vegetation  stopped,  the  only  way  iopre- 


110  HARVESTING. 

serve  the  straw  and  the  grain,  if  any -has  been  formed, 
from  being  entirely  lost,  is  to  cut  it  down  immediately, 
even  though  the  crop  should  be  far  from  ripe.  The 
straw  is  thus  preserved  either  for  food  or  litter  ;  and  it 
is  maintained  that  any  nourishment  in  the  straw,  will 
pass  into  and  feed  the  grain,  and  make  a  greater  return 
than  could  well  be  expected. 

SMUT 

Is  a  distemper  in  grain,  which  dissolves  the  substance 
of  the  kernel,  turns  it  to  a  black  dust,  and  bursts  the 
coat  ot  the  kernel.  The  real  cause  of  smut  has  escaped 
the  researches  of  many  philosophers.  The  methods  of 
preventing  it,  recommended  by  different  writers,  are  va- 
rious. 

It  is  said  in  the  Pennsylvania  Farmer^  that  smut  in 
wheat  may  be  removed  by  sinking  a  vessel  that  contains 
the  seed  beneath  a  running  stream,  or  under  a  pump  ; 
stirring  it  briskly  with  a  broom,  whereby  the  balls,  if 
any,  of  this  pernicious  substance,  will  lioat  away  or  may 
be  skimmed  off,  and  if  there  be  not  any  of  them,  butsome 
of  the  powder  adhereing  to  the  seed-wheat,  this  active 
stirring  and  brushing  will  cleanse  it. 

From  various  experiments  it  has  been  found  that  steep- 
ing grain  24  hours  in  lye  will  prevent  smut.  Let  the  lye 
be  made  pretty  strong,  and  if  the  wheat  be  steeped  lon- 
ger than  this  length  of  time  it  will  not  injure  it,  unless  it 
be  kept  too  warm.  Lime  water,  and  brine,  applied  in 
the  same  manner,  will  no  doubt  answer  the  same  purpose. 
— (See  the  article  wheat.) 

Seed-wheat  which  has  been  well  ripened  before  har- 
vesting, is  much  less  liable  to  smut  than  that  which  has 
been  cut  early.  Wheat  that  is  very  smutty,  should  not 
be  harvested,  until  fully  ripe.  Great  care  must  be  ta- 
ken, not  to  thresh  wheat  on  a  floor  where  smutty  grain 
has  been  threshed,  to  convey  it  in  the  same  bags,  or  to 
mingle  it  with  other  wheat  in  the  same  mow;  because 
smut  is  believed  to  be  somewhat  infectious.  It  is  rec- 
ommended therefore,  that  smutty  wheat  should  be  thresh- 
ed in  the  field. 

POTATOES. 

The  potatoe,  the  prince  of  roots,  being  of  easy  culti- 
vation, generally  abundant  in  its  produce,  and  of  quick 


POTATOES*  111 

growth — ripening  in  three  or  four  months,  and  being  al- 
lowed by  all  to  be  the  best  substitQie  for  bread,  (though 
it  is  not  riianj  years  that  it  has  been  in  so  general  esti- 
mation,) has  now  attained  its  true  point  ol" estimation  and 
usefulness  in  ikrming ;  being  applied  to  numerous  and 
important  purposes. 

There  is  almost  an  endless  variet}'-  of  potatoes.  Val- 
uable kinds  are  every  year  disappearing,  and  new  sorts 
coming  into  notice.  It  wonid  be  easy  lo  name  manj^  sorts, 
but  quite  useless.  The  best  way  to  obtain  new  varieties, 
is  from  the  seeds  of  the  apples.  Gather  the  ripe  apples, 
wash  thtm  in  water  to  clear  them  from  the  pulp  ;  then 
dry  the  seeds,  and  nest  spring  sow  them  in  a  bed  which 
is  to  be  kept  clear  from  weeds  In  the  fall  the  small 
potatoes  produced  by  those,  can  be  ai>orted  and  planted 
the  <oJ lowing  spring,  when  they  wi-l  produce  potatoes  of 
the  usual  size,  and  the  varieties  can  be  ascertained. 

Potatoes  will  grow  in  almost   any  soil   if  suitably  ma 
nured  ;  but  best   in  one  that  is  light,  cool  and  good,  es- 
pecially a  fresh  oiic. 

Wet  land  produces  too  much  top,  and  a  watery  fruity 
unpleasant  to  the  taste.  Very  dry  land  produces  a  small 
and  nurly  crop.  Land  that  is  apt  to  bake  or  shaded  by 
trees  should  also  be  avoided. 

The  preparation  of  the  ground  for  potatoes  should  be 
similar  to  that  for  Indian  corn.  It  should  be  deep,  be- 
cause roots  will  commonly  grow  as  low  as  the  soil  is  stir- 
red, and  no  deeper  ;  and  all  land  that  is  not  green 
sward,  ought  to  be  well  pulverized  before  planting.  The 
quantity  oi  manure  necessary  for  a  potatoe.crop,  must 
diflfer  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  other  cir- 
cumstances. Twenty  loads  ot  barn-dung  spread  over  an 
acre  ot  land,  may  generally  be  considered  a  suitable 
quantity.  If  a  sufficient  quantity  cannot  be  furnished  to 
cover  the  whole  surf>;ce,  apply  it  to  the  drills,  or  hills 
oniy.  Coarse  crude  manures,  such  as  fresh  barn-dung, 
moss,  peat,  U\ri\  in  short,  any  manure,  that  serves  to 
keep  the  ground  loose  and  meilow,  will  answer  for  this 
plant.  If  land  is  moist,  manure  should  be  of  a  light  or 
strawy  kind;  if  dry-,  liner  and  moister. 

No  field  culture  admits  of  greater  variety  than  thfi 
potaioe  ;  some  farmers  select  the  largest  for  seed,  and 
plant  one  in  a  hiii  ;  others  select  the  smallest,  and  'plant 


112  POTATOES. 

several  in  a  hill ;  some  divide  the  largest  potatoes  into 
two  parts,  and  put  one  half  in  a  hill  ;  others  both 
halves ;  some  divide  both  the  large  and  small  po- 
tatoes into  four  parts,  and  place  the  four  pieces  in  the 
hill  at  4  to  8  inches  asunder ;  others  cut  out  the  eyes, 
and  plant  them  promiscuously,  like  Indian  corn,  4,  5,  or 
6  in  a  hill ;  all  these  modes  have  answered  well.  We 
believe,  however,  it  will  be  found  the  best  economy  to 
plant  at  least  middle  sized  whole  potatoes,  of  the  best 
formed  and  soundest  roots,  or  cut  potatoes,  equal  in 
bulk  to  those.  Each  piece  should  have  one  or  two  good 
eyes.  Cut  them  about  a  week  before  planting,  to  pre- 
vent them  from  imbibing  too  much  moisture.  If  the  land 
is  dry,  wet  and  roll  them  in  piaster  :  or  it  may  be  better 
to  sprinkle  on  gyp.  um  before  the  cut  parts  have  dried. 

Early  in  May  is  perhaps  the  right  season  for  planting 
potatoes  in  a  dry  soil.  They  will  som.etimes  do  well 
planted  the  last  of  June.  On  all  soils  they  should  be 
planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  warm.  An  early  crop 
will  be  dry  and  mealy,  a  late  one  unsolid  and  watery. — 
Planting  in  hills  is  no  doubt  best  for  rough  ground.  But 
in  a  rich,  mellow  soil,  vvell  prepared,  the  drill  method  is 
best.  Furrow  the  ;>round  about  three  and  an  half  feet 
apart,  after  the  manure  is  placed,  drop  the  potatoe  on  it 
about  8  inches  apart,  and  cover  them  thinly. 

When  they  are  about  6  or  6  inches  high,  the  plough 
shouiJ  go  andreturn  in  an  interval,  turning  the  earth  at 
the  iirst  ploughing  from,  and  at  the  second  (which  should 
be  before  th-^y  blossom)  towards  the  rows.  After  each 
ploughing  a  little  earth  must  be  drawn  round  them  with 
the  hoe,  taking  care  not  to  l)ill  them  too  much  :  For  they 
will  not  grow  v/Al  more  than  4  or  5  inches  under  the 
surfixce.  The  ridges  or  hills  should  be  rather  broad  than 
steep;  and  d  at  on  the  top,  to  retain  the  moisture.  If  any 
weeds  should  afterwards  rise,  they  should  be  cut  up  with 
the  hoe,  that  none  may  go  to  seed. 

The  blossom  should  l>e  taken  off  as  soon  as  they  ap- 
pear, as  this  has  been  found,  by  experiments  accurately 
made,  to  increase  the  crop  about  one  sixth  part. 

Potatoes  should  be  dug  and  housed  as  soon  as  they  are 
ripe,  before  the  vines  are  entirely  dead.  Exposing  them 
to  the  sun  and  air,  is  generally  supposed  to  be  injurious 
to  them.     In  gathering  a  crop  it  is  recommended  to  run 


RUTA    BAGA.  113 

furrows  on  each  side  of  the  rows  and  then  a  deep  one 
n  the  middle,  which  turns  most  ot  them  to  the  surface. 
Passing  a  tine  toothed  harrow  over  the  ground,  will  aid 
in  the  work — hogs  can  be  turned  in  to  take  the  few  that 
are  left.  It  is  said  that  one  man  can  throw  out  of  the 
hill,  with  a  four-pronged  fork,  as  many  as  five  or  six 
hands  can  pick  up  and  cart.  (Suitable  forks  are  for 
sale  at  the  Repository  in  Boston.) 

For  fatting  ail  kinds  of  cattle  they  are  very  good,  when 
steam  boiled ;  the  juice  of  potatoes  is  injurious,  the  wa- 
ter in  which  the}'^  are  boiled  should  always  be  thrown 
away.  In  a  raw  state  they  are  considered  less  nourishing 
for  hogs,  than  any  other  animal.  The  potatoe  is  a  very 
important  article.  Some  writer  calls  it  a  little  loaf  ready 
for  cooking.  This  plant,  and  maize,  are  indigenous, — 
the  most  valuable  vegetable  productions  of  which  this 
happy  continent  can  boast. 

RUTA  BAGA. 

The  Ruta-Baga,  or  Swedish  turnip,  is  considered  su- 
perior to  any  other  kind  of  turnip  for  stock  ;  and  is  suita- 
ble for  all  kinds  of  creatures  except  milch-cows.  It  is 
the  sweetest  kind,  especially  when  steam-boiled.  Its 
flesh  is  harder  and  more  consistent,  which  better  enables  it 
to  withstand  frosts,  and  to  keep  from  one  year  to  another. 
It  is  raised  as  cheap  as  Indian  corn.  The  average  pro- 
duct on  land  well  prepared,  is  from  five  hundred  to  six 
hundred  bushels.  The  tops,  when  cut  before  the  roots 
are  gathered,  are  valuable  as  green  feed  for  stock ; 
yielding,  according  to  Mr.  Cobbet  about  four  waggon 
loads  per  acre.  Sandy  and  sandy-loam  soils,  where  they 
are  sufhcientiy  manured,  are  considered  best  for  ail  kinds 
of  turnips  ;  but  any  rich,  dry,  mellow  soil  is  good. 

To  prevent  degenerating,  Mr.  Cohhett  recommends  the 
following  mangenient.  Select  the  fairest  and  best  form- 
ed roots  for  seed,  rejecting  those  of  a  whitish  color,  or 
greenish  towards  the  neck,  preferring  such  as  are  of  a 
redish  cast.  Preserve  them  carefully  over  the  winter  ; 
and  set,  in  March  or  April,  ia  a  rich  soil,  remote  from 
the  roots  of,  the  turnips,  or  cabbage-kind,  to  preserve 
the  seed  pure  and  unmixed.  Two  or  three  roots  if  they 
do  well,  will  yield  seed  sufficient  for  an  acre  of  land. 
Let  the  seed  remain  in  the  pods,  until  the  time  of  sovr- 
11 


114  RUTA  BAGA. 

ing ;  which  is  from  the  20th  of  June  to  the  first,  or  even 
10th  of  Julj^  It  is  recommended,  if  the  soil  is  dry,  to 
steep  the  seed  and  roll  them  in  gypsum. 

The  gi'ound  should  be  twice  deeply  ploughed,  and 
then  harrowed.  Furrows  are  then  to.be  run  at  the  dis- 
tances of  about  thirty  inches,  the  plough  passing  tv.'ice 
in  the  same  place,  and  turning  the  furrows  back  to  back. 
In  the  bottom  of  these  furrows  suitable  manure  is  to  be 
placed  evenly  along.  If  the  soil  is  previously  pretty 
rich,  fifteen  horse-cart  loads  will  be  sufficient ;  if  other- 
wise, thirtv  ox-cart  loads  should  be  used.  A  furrow 
with  a  horse  plough,  is  then  to  be  run  on  each  side  to  cov- 
er the  dung.  Level  the  top  of  the  ridges,  which  should 
be  but  very  little  elevated,  except  in  wettish  land,  and 
drill,  or  plant  the  seed  by  hand,  about  a  foot  apart,  or 
less  if  the  ground  is  not  rich,  and  two  or  three  seeds  in  each 
hole  ;  pressing  the  earth  upon  them  a  little.  When  the 
plants  are  well  up,  plough  and  hoe  them.  In  due  sea- 
son, thin  them,  leaving  but  one  in  a  place,  and  fill  up 
vacancies  by  transplanting.  After  this,  they  must  be 
ploughed  and  hoed  once  or  twice,  and  the  weeds  on  the 
ridges  taken  out  with  the  hoe  or  the  hand. 

Another  method  highly  recommended  is  to  transplant 
ruta  baga.  This  may  be  done  after  the  15th  of  July, 
and  after  a  crop  has  been  taken  from  the  ground  ;  but 
the  first  of  July  is  probably  a  better  time.  In  trans- 
planting it  is  recommended,  that  it  be  done  immediately 
after  a  heavy  shower,  that  the  plants  be  of  five  or  six 
weeks  growth,  and  that  in  setting,  particular  care  be 
taken  to  press  the  earth  closely  against  the  bottom  of  the 
roots. 

To  save  labor,  some  prefer  sowing  the  seed  broad- 
cast ;  and  hoeing  once  among  them,  thinning  out  the 
plants  to  proper  distances.  A  crop  of  six  hundred  bush- 
els was  raised  upon  one  acre  of  a  clover  lay  in  New- 
York.  The  grass  was  cut  about  the  20th  of  June,  about 
twelve  loads  of  manure  spread  over  the  ground,  which 
was  immediately  ploughed,  one  pound  of  seed  sown,  and 
harrowed  in  lengthwise  of  the  furrows. 

The  time  of  harvesting  is  before  the  frosts  set  in,  say 
not  to  exceed  the  10th  of  November.  The  earth  can 
be  turned  from  the  roots  with  the  plough,  in  dry  weath- 
er, and  then  gathered  by  hand.     The  crop  may    be    se- 


TURNIPS.  115 

cured  over  the  winter,  in  the  usual  manner  of  securing 
potatoes,  either  in  the  cellar,  or  in  pits  dug  in  some  dry 
field,  and  covered  close  and  secure.  The  tops  should  he 
put  in  small  heaps  to  prevent  them  from  heating,  and  fed 
to  cattle. 

Ruta  Baga  does  not  come  t©  its  sweetest  taste  till  Feb- 
ruary. To  fat  cattle,  they  must  not  be  given  in  so  great 
a  quantity  as  to  occasion  a  continual  looseness.  Hogs 
will  feed  and  fatten  on  them ;  cut  small,  they  are  re- 
markably fitted  to  fatten  sheep  ;  and  the  horse,  when 
accustomed  to  them,  is  said  to  prefer  them  to  grain. 
They  should  be  put  into  a  tub,  and  cut  small  with  an 
instrumant  like  a  hoe,  with  the  blade  put  perpendicular 
into  the  shaft.  A  man  will  with  this  instrument  cut  as 
much  in  one  hcv:r,  as  six  hors^es  will  consume  in  twenty- 
four.  For  all  animals,  they  are  improved  by  steaming 
or  boiling. 

The  French  turnip  nearly  resembles  the  Swedish,  and 
requires  about  the  same  culture,  &c. 

TUB  NIPS. 

Turnips  are  cultivated  in  two  ways,  viz. — in  the  broad- 
cast and  drilled  methods.  They  succeed  best  in  a  light, 
sandy  loam.  Upon  new  or  fresh  ground  the}^  are  always 
sweeter,  than  on  old  cultivated  fields.  Though  such  is 
the  kind  of  land  best  adapted  to  the  raising  of  turnips, 
yet  they  are  cultivated  upon  every  sort  of  soil  in  use  as 
arable  land.  Much  of  the  sandy  soil  now  lying  waste  in 
various  places,  might,  with  the  assistance  of  culture, 
and  a  small  portion  of  manure,  be  profitably  employed 
in  producing  turnips  ;  for  such  ground,  if  dressed  with  a 
light  coat  of  clay  or  loam,  would  yield  excellent  crops  of 
this  vegetable. 

The  ground  intended  for  the  production  of  turnips  in 
the  ensuing  season,  ought  to  be  deeplj'^  ploughed  in  Oc- 
tober or  November,  and  to  be  left  in  that  rough  state,  to 
receive  the  benefits  of  the  winter  frosts,  &lc.  In  the 
April  following,  harrow  it,  about  the  middle  of  May 
give  it  a  deep  cross  ploughing;  and  in  June  harrow  it 
again.  Just  before  sowing',  spread  a  good  coat  of  man- 
ure, plough  it  in  lightly,  and  mix  it  well  with  the  har- 
row ;  sow  the  seed  and  harrow  it  in  with  a  light  harrow, 
and  roll  the  ground. 


116  TURNIPS. 

Ah  !  says  the  farmer,  this  will  never  do  ;  the  crop  will 
not  be  worth  the  expense.  First  make  one  fair  experi- 
ment, and  we  are  confident  you  will  not  give  up  the  pur- 
suit ;  you  ought  to  take  into  consideration,  that  after  the 
turnips  are  off  the  ground,  it  will  be  in  a  high  state  of 
preparation  for  several  succeessive  crops,  of  various 
kinds,  and  that  without  this,  or  similar  tillage,  it  may  re- 
main during  your  life  in  an  unproductive  state. 

The  time  of  sowing  depends  upon  the  application  of 
the  crop  ;  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  first  of  August, 
is  the  proper  time,  if  intended  for  winter  feeding.  A 
damp  time  should  be  chosen. 

The  quantity  of  seed  sown  on  an  acre  by  the  turnip 
farmers,  is  never  less  than  one  pound,  more  frequently 
a  pound  and  a  half  The  crop  may  be  greatly  aug- 
mented in  product,  by  going  over  the  ground,  once  at 
least,  with  a  hoe,  for  the  purpose  of  extirpating  the 
weeds,  and  thinning  the  plant,  so  as  to  stand  from  six  to 
eight  or  ten  inches  apart,  according  to  the  size  they  are 
expected  to  grow.  If  the  weeds  rise  again,  as  they 
commonly  will  in  old  ground,  the  hoe  should  be  applied 
the  second  time.  Here  again  will  the  farmer  exclaim 
against  the  expense  and  trouble  of  hoeing ;  but  let  him 
try  one  acre  in  this  way,  and  leave  another  of  the  same 
quality  to  nature,  as  is  too  frequently  done,  and  he  will 
find,  says  M.  Mahon^  that  the  extra  produce  of  the  hoed 
acre,  will  more  than  six  times  compensate  for  the  labor 
estovved. 

Among  numerous  precautions,  recommended  to  pre- 
vent the  destructive  ravages  of  the  lly,  the  following  are 
considered  the  most  eifectual.  To  steep  the  seed  in  fish 
oil  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours,  drain  it  off,  and  mix 
the  seed  with  dust  or  piaister,  to  separate  and  enrich  it. 
Or  in  a  dry  season,  soon  after  the  plants  have  come  up, 
sow  very  thinly  over  them,  some  powdered  soct  or 
lime,  in  a  dewy  morning.  But  probably  the  most  effec- 
tual method  is,  to  use  a  heavy  roller  after  sowing.  The 
turnip  fly  is  always  found  most  numerous  in  rough  work- 
ed ground,  as  there  they  can  retreat  and  take  shelter 
under  the  clods,  from  the  weather,  birds,  &c. 

Some  strongly  recommend  cultivating  the  common 
turnip  in  drills,  in  a  manner  similar  to  ruta  baga,  except 
that  they  are  allowed  to  grow  nearer  each  other  in  the 


TURNIPS.  117 

rows.  The  seed  should  be  liberally  strewn,  in  order 
that  if  part  ot^  the  plants  be  destroyed  by  the  files, 
enough  may  still  remain. 

Turnips  are  raised  very  successfully,  by  ploughing  in 
the  stubble  on  rich  land,  harrowing  the  ground  lightly, 
and  sowing  two  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  When  the 
plants  are  above  ground,  give  them  a  light  covering  of, 
ashes,  When  they  are  four  inches  high,  run  a  furrow 
with  a  horse  plough  through  the  field,  and  return  with 
another,  at  the  distance  of  three  feet  from  the  former, 
in  this  way  the  whole  can  be  ploughed  into  rows,  thin- 
ned and  hoed  in  a  proper  manner.  The  plants  turned 
under,  furnish  considerable  manure. 

Another  method  is,  to  plough  in  the.  richest  stubble 
fields  immediately  after  Imrvest,  dress  the  ground  with 
plaster,  live  or  leached  ashes,  or  compost  manure,  and 
harrow  in  the  seed. 

When  the  ground  is  folded  for  raising  turnips,  instead 
of  sowing  this  crop  the  first  year,  let  it  be  frequently 
ploughed;  in  order  to  kill  all  the  weeds,  and  sown  early 
with  flax  the  next  sprin<r,  and  then  with  turnips,  after 
the  flax  is  taken  ofl".  Great  crops  of  flax  may  in  this 
manner  be  raised. 

As  turnips  are  thought  by  some  to  be  an  exhausting 
crop,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  considerable  manure,  or 
to  feed  a  part  of  the  crop  upon  the  ground,  to  prevent 
the  soil  from  being  injured.  Where  sheep  are  a  part  of 
the  stock  of  fatting  cattle,  a  quantity  sufficient  for  them 
may  be  left  in  the  ground.  Thus,  if  they  are  to  con- 
sume a  fourth  part  of  the  whole  crop,  leave  every 
fourth  row,  and  by  this  means  their  manure  will  be  more 
equally  distributed. 

Those  that  are  not  fed  on  the  ground,  must  be  har- 
vested (in  New  England)  about  the  end  of  October,  or 
even  earlier  in  some  places.  Those  that  are  intended, 
for  early  feeding,  may  be  topped,  and  preserved  from 
frost  some  time  in  the  barn,  covered  with  litter.  Such 
as  are  intended  to  be  kept  till  spring,  should  be  covered 
with  potatoes,  or  dry  sand,  to  prevent  them  from  being 
pithy.  '  ». 

Common  white  turnips  require  to  be  fed    out    before 
they  grow  spongy.     The  most  excellent  mutton  is  fatted 
on  turnips,  and  they  are  a  good  food  for  horned  cattle. 
*11 


lis  MANGEL    WURT2EL 

But  if  fed  plentifully  to  milch  cows,  they  are  said  to  give 
•the  milk  an  ill  taste.     (For  saving  the  seed,  see  seed.) 

Mr.  Little^  of  Massachusetts,  in  1821,  raised  615  bush- 
els of  common  turnips  on  an  acre.  The  entire  expense 
of  cultivating  this  acre,  including  thirteen  dollars  for 
manure,  was  twenty-eight  dollars  and  seventy-five  cents. 

Mr.  Melville,  of  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1817, 
raised  about  800  bushels  of  common  turnips  on  an  acre  ! 
We  will  briefly  state  his  method  of  culture. 

The  ground  was  old  improved  land,  half  in  sward,  and 
halfpotatoe  ground.  Ploughed  it  20th  May,  and  har- 
rowed it  well  twice.  Ploughed  and  harrowed  it  again 
20th  of  June,  and  formed  it  into  drills,  about  twenty- 
eight  inches  apart, — next  day,  carried  on  fourteen  loads 
hog  manure,  seven  of  sheep,  and  seven  of  barn  manure, 
applied  it  to  the  drills,  and  planted  it  immediately.  Next 
day  sowed  on  thirty  bushels  slacked  lime,  and  fifteen 
bushels  ashes  ;  to  extend  the  experiment,  divided  the 
top  dressing  equally  on  the  different  kinds  of  manure, 
(so  as  to  ascertain  which  manure,  and  which  top  dress- 
ing was  most  suitable  for  turnips)  left  about  two  square 
rods  without  either  manure  or  top  dressing,  and  marked 
off  three  drills  not  to  be  hoed  at  all.  On  10th  July  har- 
rowed; 15th  hoed  them,  leaving  one  plant  in  four  or 
five  inches.  That  part  with  sheep  manure  and  ashes 
was  the  most  promising  ;  and  that  with  hog  manure  and 
ashes  next.  After  hoeing,  the  drills  with  hog  manure 
and  ashes  took  the  lead  ;  those  not  hoed,  were  very 
diminutive.  The  21st  of  July,  harrowed  again,  and  the 
26th,  hoed  the  second  and  last  time.  The  1st  of  Au- 
gust, began  to  thin  out,  to  feed  to  cattle — in  this  man- 
ner, sixty-three  bushels  were  used  previous  to  harvest- 
ing. On  the  5th  November,  began  to  take  them  in, 
and  had  tweiity-Jive  oxen  cart  loads.  The  expense  of  cul- 
tivation was  seventeen  dollars  seventy-five  cents.  The 
average  weight  of  the  turnips  was  from  four  and  a 
half  to  six  pounds  ;  several  weighed  ten,  and  one  weigh- 
ed thirteen  and  a  quarter  pounds  ;  whilst  those  without 
manure,  and  those  not  hoed,  did  not  average  more  than 
one  and  a  half  pound  each. 

MANGEL  WURTZEL. 

The  Mangel  Wurtzel,  or  Root  of  Scarcity,  is  a  species 
•f  the  beet.     It  grows  like  that,  chiefly  above   ground, 


MANGEL  WtrRTZEL.  119 

into  which  it  does  not  penetrate  more  than  half  its  whole 
length.  It  would  be  apt  to  rot  if  the  root  was  covered 
with  soil.  Its  culture  is  easy — its  advantages  numerous. 
Both  the  leaves  and  the  roots  are  good  food  for  man  and 
beast ;  nor  are  they  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  insects  ; 
they  are  also  proot'  against  the  summer's  drought,  and 
the  change  of  the  season.  It  prepares  the  ground  ex- 
tremely well  for  other  crops. 

The  more  the  land  is  manured  and  cultivated,  the 
better  the  plants.  In  ordinary  land,  with  common  cul- 
ture, they  will  weigh  five  or  six  pounds,  and  the  leavei 
can  be  stripped  four  or  five  times  in  a  season.  In  good 
land  they  often  weigh  nine  or  ten  pounds,  and  are  strip- 
ped eight  or  nine  times.  In  a  suitable  soil,  well  manur- 
ed, they  frequently  weigh  fourteen  or  fifteen  pounds. 

Rich,  deep,  loamy  soils  arfe  properly  adapted  to  it« 
culture ;  it  is  cultivated  with  success,  on  loamy  land, 
with  some  mixture  of  sand  in  it;  on  such  it  is  consider- 
ed by  some  more  profitable  to  cultivate  than  any  other 
root,  especially  when  the  leaves  are  used  for  selling. 

The  ground  should  be  prepared  to  receive  the  seed, 
and  cleared  the  same  way  as  for  ruia-baga.  The  manure 
shouW  be  of  the  finer  kind.  The  roots  will  not  get  to  a 
larger  size  in  rows  three  feet  apart  than  they  do  in  rows 
two  feet  apart.  The  seed  should  be  carefully  selected 
from  tiie  most  perfect  plait*,  and  that  have  been  cultiv- 
ated at  a  distance  from  other  varieties.  It  is  best  when 
fresh,  but  will  keep  several  years.  It  must  be  deposit- 
ed in  the  earth  about  an  inch  deep,  and  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen inches  apart,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil. 
If  vacancies  occur,  they  can  be  supplied  by  trans- 
planting. 

The  proper  time  for  planting  is  the  month  of  May. 
Every  seed  will  have  two  or  three  roots  growing  to- 
gether; as  soon  as  they  shew  their  fourth  leaf,  all,  but 
the  most  vigorous  plant,  must  be  taken  away.  As  soon 
as  the  head  of  the  plant  has  spread,  no  weed  can  live 
underneath  its  shade,  and  the  expense  of  hoeing  after- 
wards is  very  trifling. 

When  the  outward  leaves  are  about  a  foot  long,  the 
first  crop  can  be  gathered,  taking  the  under  ones  that 
bend  towards  the   ground;  breaking  them   ofi'  near  the 


1 20  CARROTS. 

root  In  good  land  the  leaves  can  be  plucked  off  every 
two  or  three  weeks. 

Gather  and  store  the  roots  away  dry,  hefore  any  frost, 
taking  care  that  they' are  not  bruised,  which  occasions 
their  speedy  decay.  They  may  be  kept  in  dry  sand, 
to  protect  them  from  frost ;  or  without  sand,  if  in  a 
place  sufficiently  guarded  against  frost.  Those  that  are 
intended  for  the  table,  will  be  found  much  better,  if 
covered  with  sand,  or  with  other  vegetables. 

Mr.  Peters,  of  Pennsylvania,  gives  a  preference  to 
this  root,  having  tried  all  other?,  particularly  for  fatten- 
ing neat-cattle,  sheep,  and  store  hogs ;  and  says,  that 
to  some  horses  it  is  grateful  and  nutritive,  though  some 
refuse  to  eat  it.  T.ne  leaves,  which  are  very  abundant, 
he  considers  superior  to  £iny  other  green  herbage,  now 
in  common  use,  for  cattle  that  are  not  pastured. 

In  giving  these  roots  to  cattle,  they  are  lirst  washed 
and  then  choped  into  small  pieces.  It  is  best  to  accom- 
pany them,  when  given  to  horned  cattle,  wilh  some 
kind  of  hay,  or  choped  straw.  Fed  in  moderate  quan- 
tities to  miich  cows,  they  impart  a  delicate  flavour  to  the 
cream  and  milk.  Steam  boiling  improves  them  very 
much  for  fatting  cattle.  If  they  become  frozen,  they 
may  be  uned  for  cattle,  before  they  have  thawed,  by  ex- 
tracting the  frost  from  them  in  v/ater.  In  this  way  all 
kinds  of  roots  can  be  managed. 

In  the  year  1820,  Mr.  Prince^  of  IMassachusetts,  rais- 
ed six  hundred  seventy  and  a  half  bushels  of  mangel 
wurtzel  on  one  acre. 

In  1822,  Mr.  Little^  of  the  same  state,  raised  nine 
hundred  seventy/  and  a  half  bushels  on  one  acre,  the 
whole  cost,  inchiding  manure,  was  g23     96  cents. 

Mr.  Powell^  of  Philadelphia  county,  raised  nine  hun- 
dred eighty-two  and  a  half  bushels,  on  one  hundred  fifty- 
five  and  a  quarter  perches  of  land,  which  had  not  re- 
ceived more  manure  than  is  usually  given  to  potatoe 
crops  in  that  county.  The  whole  expense  was  about 
equal  to  that  of  Indian  corn. 

CARROTS. 

The  field  culture  of  carrots^  for  the  purpose  of  provid- 
ing a  succulent  food  for  winter^s  stock,  begins,  to 
be,  very  deservedly,  more  and  more   an    object  of  at- 


CARROTS.  121 

tention.  Among  vegetables,  the  carrot  is  deemed  by- 
many  writers,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  to  combine 
more"  advantages  than  almost  any  other,  considering  the 
quantity  and  quahty  of  its  produce,  and  the  etfect  of  its 
cultivation,  in  deepening,  clearing,  and  ameliorating  the 
ground,  for  subsequent  crops.  They  will  yield,  with 
the  best  cultivation,  from  six  to  eight  hundred  bushels 
to  an  acre.  They  require  a  mellow  soil,  into  which 
they  can  easily  penetrate  deeply.  They  will  grow  verj 
well  on  one  which  is  moderately  rich  ;  provided  it  be 
well  and  deeply  mellowed,  to  the  depth  of  ten  or  twelve 
inches.  If  the  plough  do  not  go  deep  enough  at  once, 
it  should  be  trench  plou^jhed  ;  that  is,  the  plough  should 
pass  twice  in  the  furrow.  A  fertile  sand,  a  sandy  loam, 
a  dry  warm  loam,  or  a  fertile  gravelly  loam,  are  each 
suitable  for  them,  with  proper  manuring  and  cultivation. 

The  seed  should  be  obtained  from  fine  deep-red,  or 
orange  colored  roots,  carefully  preserved,  and  collected 
only  from  the  centre  seed  stalks.  The  pale  colored 
roots,  and  yellow  ones,  are  fast  degenerating.  About  four 
and  a  half  pounds  of  seed  are  sufficient  for  an  acre,  when 
sown  broad  cast. 

Carrots  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  caa 
be  made  light  and  loose,  the  last  of  April  or  first  of  May 
is  late  enough.  They  will  do  tolerably  well  later,  es- 
pecially if  the  seed  are  steeped.  Before  sowing  or  plant- 
ing, rub  the  seed  betwixt  the  hands,  to  take  otlMhe 
beards,  to  prevent  them  from  sticking  together  ;  with  the 
same  intention  it  is  soAetimes  mixed  with  sand,  or  tine 
saw  dust.  Put  on  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  most  rot- 
ten compost,  to  make  the  ground  rich.  Fresh  dung 
should  not  be  applied  to  this  crop. 

The  sowing  is  performed,  either  in  the  broad-cast  way 
or  the  drill.  In  the  former,  the  seed  is  covered  with  a 
rake  instead  of  a  harrow,  to  prevent  its  being  covered 
too  deep.  The  first  hoeing  being  finished,  after  they 
have  arrived  to  a  suitable  size,  the  ground  can  all  be 
harrowed  over,  without  any  injury  to  one  plant,  per- 
haps, in  fifty,  if  they  are  uncovered  of  the  din  thrown 
on  by  the  harrow  :  This  is  a  proper  time  to  thin  them, 
letting  them  stand  about  six  inches  assunder.  A  second 
hoeing  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the  weeds  and  the 
growth  of  the  crop  render  it   necessasy.     If  the  plants 


'122  CARROTS. 

grow  luxuriantly^  they  can  be  thinned  again  and  fed  to 
the  hogs.  The  crops  are  much  larger,  when  the  roots 
have  sufficient  room.  (In  England  the  usual  distance  is 
fii'teen  to  eighteen  inches  each  way.)  Further  hoeings 
will  occasionally  be  requisite  to  keep  the  ground  deep- 
ly stirred  and  perfectly  clean.  The  hoeings  are  best 
performed  with  a  sharp  narrow  hoe. 

If  the  ground  is  not  too  dry,  carrots  should  be  sown 
on  ridges,  two  feet  apart ;  they  may  be  made  with  a 
'^ horse  plough;  and  the  top  of  each  ridge  should  be  le- 
velled with  a  rake.  Immediately  after  the  ground  is 
ridged  and  raked  open  a  drill  with  a  hoe,  plant  the  seed 
pretty  thick,  cover  about  an  inch  deep,  and  press  down 
a  little  with  a  hoe  or  shovel.  About  two  pounds  of 
seed  will  be  found  sufficient.  Success  in  cultivating 
this  vegetable,  depends  entirely  on  early  attention,  in 
w^eeding,  thinning,  hoeing,  and  ploughing — the  plants 
should  not  be  left  for  a  crop  nearer  than  three  or  four 
inches.  It  is  not  the  number  but  the  size  of  carrots 
tliat  makes  a  large  crop.  If  the  plants  are  suffered  to 
fttand  thick,  they  Vvili  necessarily  be  small,  and  of  an  in- 
ferior quality.  The}'^  should  at  all  times  be  kept  fre* 
from  v/eeds,  and  the  earth  lossened  w'th  a  hoe.  If  they 
are  planted  on  a  side  hill,  be  caref'il  not  to  have  the 
rows  go  v.p  and  down,  as  they  are  apt  to  wash.  If  heavy 
rains  fail,  the  ground  between  the  rows  should  be  stir- 
red as  deep  and  as  near  to  them,  as  can  be  done  with 
safety  to  the  roots. 

Instead  of  one  row  on  a  ridgef  some  sow  two  rows, 
ten  or  twelve  inches  apart ;  and  thin  the  plants  to  four 
or  five  inches  distance  in  the  rows,  with  intervals  of 
three  feet  between  the  double  rows,  for  tilling  them 
wiih  the  plough. 

Carrots  grow  considerably  in  October — the  first  of 
November  is  ei\r\j  enough  to  gather  them.  Run  a 
plough  close  to  tlie  plants,  so  as  to  turn  the  earth  from 
them,  and  they  may  then  be  easily  pulled  up.  Where 
it  is  not  convenient  to  do  this,  the  spade  and  dung-fork 
will  be  found  most  convenient.  Cut  off  the  tops  near, 
but  not  quite  to  the  crown  of  the  plant.  All  that  are 
Kroken,  or  cut,  being  liable  to  decay  must  not  be  put 
with  the  heap.  Carrots  are  easily  kept  in  masses,  in  a 
cellar  or  place  out  of  reach  of  frost,    provided  they  be 


rARSNiPS.  1 23 

dry  when  put  into  it.  But  if  wet,  they  will  be  in  great 
danger  of  heating  and  decaying.  To  prevent  this  they 
ought  to  be  taken  out  of  the  ground  in  dry  weather. 
If  possible,  after  they  are  topped,  they  should  be  per- 
mitted to  be  in  heaps,  undercover,  for  eight  or  ten  days. 

Carrots  will  amply  repay  every  expense  of  the  finest 
culture ;  and  from  their  extensive  utility,  it  were  much 
to  be  wished,  they  were  more  generally  introduced.  In 
the  stable,  they  are  a  good  substitute  for  grain  to  hor- 
ses, not  employed  in  any  quick  work,  and  partially  to 
those  that  are  :  they  are  pecuharly  well  calculated  for 
fattening  oxen  and  sheep,  as  well  as  feeding  cows,  hor- 
ses and  hog3.  One  bushel  per  day  is  the  usual  allow- 
ance for  working  horses.  The  tops  are  valuable  for 
c6ws,  sheep  and  swine. 

Mr.  Butler,  says  that  500  bushels  to  the  acre  is  a 
good  crop,  but  that  he  has  known  2,500  bushels  to  be 
raised  upon  an  acre,  or  in  that  ratio  ;  and  that  it  is  worth 
2s.  v.'hen  given  raw  to. hogs,  cattle,  and  sheep,  or  2^.  Qd. 
when  boiled,  or  steamed,  and  mixed  with  bran  ;  such 
feed  makes  excellent  pork,  beef,  mutton,  butter  and 
cheese. 

PARS^'IPS. 

The  cultivation  proper  for  parsnips,  is  very  similar  to 
that  for  carrots,  and  the  same  kind  of  soil  and  manures 
are  suitable  for  each.  They,  however,  require  the  soil 
to  be  loosened  eighteen  inches  deep ;  therefore  they 
•  should  be  planted  in  a  stronger  soil  than  that  appropri- 
ated to  carrots ;  as  they  demand  perhaps  a  better  soil 
than  an)'^  crop  the  farmer  can   put  into  the  ground. 

Trench  ploughing  may  be  suitably  employed  for  this 
and  the  carrot  crop.  It  is  performed  by  first  running  a 
furrow  the  usual  depth  ;  then  another  plough  follows, 
in  the  same  furrow,  and  throws  up  the  fresh  earth  over 
the  old,  sufficiently  deep  to  bury  that  below  the  com- 
mon depth  of  ploughing;  then  the  next  light  furrow, 
with  the  iirst  plough,  throws  the  old  earth  into  the  bot- 
tom of  the  deep  furrow  and  this  again  follows,  with  the 
second  plough,  and  throws  the  new  layer  on  the  top  of 
the  old,  Slc. 

"  Parsnips  are    considered  as  good  foj^, feeding  and  fat- 
tening of  cattle  as   carrots,    and  are  about  equally  pro- 


124      ■  CABBAGES. 

ductive.  They  might  be  cultivated  to  advantage  for 
feeding  in  the  spring,  when  the  stock  of  carrots  has  be- 
come exhausted ;  as  the  best  way  to  keep  them  over 
winter  is,  to  let  them  remain  in  the  ground.  If  dug  up 
in  the  fall,  tlie  best  time  is  the  last  of  November.  Let 
none  of  the  roots  be  Avounded  in  digging  up.  The  tops 
should  not  be  cut  off  very  close.  It  is  better  to  keep 
them  in  a  cellar  that  freezes  than  in  a  warm  one.  To 
prevent  them  from  drying,  cover  them  with  dry  sods  or 
sand. 

TJie  greens  of  parsnips  are  as  good  for  cow-feed  ai 
those  of  carrots  ;  but  if  the  crop'  is  to  stand  out  in  the 
ground  all  the  winter,  the  tops  should  not  be  cut  off  in 
the  fall. 

These  have  been  long  known  among  us  as  a  garden 
vegetable,  but  are  rarely  met  with  in  field  culture ; 
a  fact  the  more  extraordinary,  as  in  England,  they  have 
been  very  extensively  and  profitably  employed  that  way 
for  more  than  half  a  century.  They  are  easily  raised, 
subjeci  to  i'ew  diseases,  re=i.«t  frost  more  than  the  com- 
mon turnip,  and  are  palatable  to  cattle. 

Cabbages  require  a  rich  soil,  rather  moist  than  dry. 
A  clay  soil,  well  mixed  vvith  other  matters,  is  very  pro- 
per for  them.  Thc}"^  are  said  to  grow  well  in  drained 
swamps  without  manure.  Hog  dung,  mixed  with  fime 
or  ashes,  or  door  dung  and  ashes  are  suitable  manure 
for  them. 

The  species  most  recommended,  are  the  early  Salis- 
bury and  York,  the  great  Scotch,  the  Drumhead,  and 
the  green  Savoy.  The  last  is  probably  best  both  for 
man  and  cattle.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  for  this 
crop,  may  be  the  same  as  that  de=?cribed  for  potatoes, 
which,  therefore  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

It  is  a  question,  whether  it  is  best  to  transplant  cab- 
bages, or  to  set  the  seeds  in  the  spot,  and  at  the  proper 
distances  where  they  are  to  grow.  As  the  latter  method 
is  amended  with  the  least  trouble,  it  is  to  be  recom- 
mended for  field  culture.  New  seed  vegetates  quicker, 
and  is  more  to  be  depended  upon. 

About  the  last  of  May,  plant  the  seed  in  rows  three 
and  a  half  or  four  feet  apart,  the  hills  one  and  a 
hair  or  two  fee,t  from  each  other,  and  plough  and  hoe  as 
for  oiher  hoed    crops.      In  regard  to  the   distance   of 


BEAN'S.  1 2b 

planting,  it  must  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  the 
goodness  of  the  soil,  and  the  natural  size  of  the  variety 
of  the  cabbage  employed.  In  clayey  soils,  retentive  of 
moisture,  they  should  he  planted  on  three  feet  ridges. 
Six  or  seven  thousand  cabbages  will  grow  on  an  acre  of 
ground.  Strewing  soot,  ashes,  or  lime,  round  them, 
while  young  will  assist  considerably  in  keeping  off  in- 
sects which  attack  them. 

Cabbages  aiford  a  most  excellent  forage  for  sheep, 
cattle  or  swine,  till  the  month  of  February.  AVhen  fed 
to  milch  cows,  the  decayed  leaves  must  be  taken  off,  or 
they  will  impart  a  bad  taste  to  the  milk  and  butter. 

Cabbages  for  winter  use  should  be  pulled  in  dry 
weather,  and  hung  up  in  a  cool  part  of  the  cellar,  with 
the  heads  downwards.  But,  to  preserve  them  better 
for  winter  and  spring  use,  let  a  trench  be  made  in  a  dry 
soil,  and  line  it  with  straw^ ;  set  the  heads  closely  to- 
gether with  the  roots  upwards  ;  cover  them  with  straw, 
and  then  with  earth,  piled  up  as  steep  as  possible.  In 
this  manner,  it  is  said,  they  will  keep  till  May,  and  may 
occasionally  be  dug  out  as  they  are  wanted. 

Mr.  Winship^  of  Brighton,  Massachusetts,  raised,  in 
1820,  upwards  of  thirty-two  tons  on  an  acre.  In  Eng- 
land, twenty-five  tons  are  considered  an  average  crop. 

BEANS. 

The  only  species  of  beans  much  used  in  this  country, 
is  that  which,  in  England,  is  called,  Kidney-Bean^  and 
in  France,  Haricot;  {^Phareolus  vulgaris.')  The  bean  of 
English  writers,  is  what  is  commonly  called  here  the 
Horse-Bean^  {Viciafaha.)  Considerable  confusion  has 
arisen  from  the  indiscriminate  use  of  the  term  bean,  ap- 
lied  as  it  is,  by  some  good  American  writers  on  agricul- 
ture, to  two  very  distinct  genera  or  sorts  of  plants. 
The  horse-bean  (vicia)  being  tap-rooted,  is  much  used 
in  England  as  a  fallow  crop  ;  and  probably  might  be 
advantageously  introduced  here.  V/hite  kidnej^-beans 
are  almost  the  only  kind  used  for  field  culture  at  pres- 
ent. They  require  dry  land  that  has  been  tilled  with 
care,  so  as  to  destroy  the  weeds  ;  and  of  such  fertility 
as  would  produce  a  •  moderate  crop  of  Indian  corn. 
Poor  sandy  soils,  or  gravelly  loam,  will  produce  them  ; 
provided  the  beans  are  wet  and  rolled  in  plaister  before 
12 


126 


PEAS 


planting.  They  can  be  planted  in  hills,  or  drills,  the  rows 
two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  apart,  according  to  the 
streng-th  of  the  soil,  and  ploughed  and  hoed  like  other 
hoed  crops.  The  time  of  planting  is  the  same  as  Indian 
corn.  Hog's  dung  mixed  with  ashes,  is  said  to  be  the 
best  manure  for  them.  The  hills  should  be  from  four- 
teen to  twenty-four  inches  apart,  according  to  the  soil. 
They  must  not  l-ie  so  thick  as  to  preclude  the  sun  and 
air.     Five  beans  will  be  sufficient  to  remain  in  a  hill. 

When  about  two  thirds  of  the  pods  are  ripe,  and  be- 
fore the  frosts,  pull  and  spread  them  in  rows  ;  but  they 
must  be  turned  occasionally  at  midday,  that  the  damp- 
ness of  the  ground  may  not  mould  those  underneath. 
After  thrashing,  if  there  are  any  unripe  ones  which  re- 
quire more  drying,  spread  them  on  a  clear  floor,  under 
cover,  till  they  are  thoroughly  dried. 

White  beans  will  yield  from  ten  to  forty  bushels  to 
the  acre  ;  twenty  bushels  is  called  a  good  crop.  They 
are  valuable  for  the  table  and  for  stock,  particularly  for 
sheep  and  hogs. 

PEAS. 

.  Peas,  a  leguminous  crop,  is  proper  to  intervene  be- 
tween two  calmiferous  crops,  they  are  a  good  prepara- 
tive crop  for  grain,  as  the  ground  is  left  mellow,  and 
but  little  exhausted  by  them. 

They  are  best  adapted  to  smooth  lands  ;  as  it  is  some- 
what difficult  to  cut  the  crop  on  stony  grounds.  With 
the  aid  of  gypsum  they  will  grow  very  well  on  light 
sandy  lands  ;  and,  generally  speaking,  they  will  grow  to 
advantage  on  almost  every  soil  that  is  sufficiently  dry, 
and  rich,  for  a  good  crop  of  wheat.  If  the  ground  be 
too  rich,  however,  they  will  run  too  much  to  haulm, 
and  yield  the  less.  But  the  crop,  to  make  it  profitable, 
should  be  of  a  luxuriant  growth  ;  and  as  such  will  cover 
the  ground  more  completely,  it  will,  on  that  account, 
be  in  better  condition  for  succeeding  crops. 

The  allowance  of  seed  when  sown  broad  cast,  is  fr«m 
one  and  a  half  to  three  bushels  to  the  acre  ;  thin  soils 
requiring  the  greater  quantity.  When  sown  too  thin, 
tho  plants  will  lie  upon  the  ground,  and  perhaps  rot  : 
v^hen   bey  are  thick,  the  plants  will    hold    each    other 


PEAS.  127 

up  with  their  tendrils,  forming"  a   continued   web  ;    and 
will  have  more  benefit  of  the  air. 

Peas  should  be  sown  as  early  as  the  g-round  can  be 
well  mellowed.  The  harrow  not  coverins^  them  sufTi- 
cientl}^,  they  can  be  ploughed  in  with  a  shoal  furrow. 
If  caution  is.  used,  there  i»  not  much  danger  of  them 
being"  buried  too  deep  in  this  way.  Soaking  the  seed  in 
some  fertilizing  liquo-r,  and  drying  them  with  lime  or 
plaister,  will  be-  of  service  to  the  crop.  If  they  are  in- 
fested with  bugs,  put  them  for  a  few  seconds  in  this  li- 
quor, made  hot  ;  dry  them  in  the  manner  above  men- 
tioned, and  sow  them  immediately.  If  this  precaution  is 
ijsed,  and  new  fields  selected  for  their  culture,  it  is  said 
the  crop  will  not  be  buggy.  Those  designed  lor  cooking 
may  also  be  cleared  of  these  bugs,  by  the  use  of  hot 
water;  as  they  will  drop  out  of  their  holes,  after  they 
are  dead,  and  may  then  be  easily  sifted  out. 

The  length  and  feebleness  of  the  stems  of  peas,  and 
the  little  tendrils  they  throw  out  for  support,  indicate 
the  advantage  of  mixing  with  them  other  plants  of  more 
erect  growth,  which  may  prevent  the  peas  from  falling 
and  lodging.  For  this  pur»»ose,  rye  and  oats  have 
been  selected,  and  with  great  advantnge. 

Peas,  when  sown  early  in  April  Vtith  oajs,  or  in  May 
with  beans,  (xucia,  horse-beans)  say  one  bushel  of 
each  to  the  acre,  come  forward  early,  and  give  a  hand- 
some profit,  to  bring  forward  young  hog^  in  summer. 

This  crop  must  be  mown  before  the  peas  begin  to 
shell  out,  laid  in  small  heaps  until  dry  ;  removed  to  the 
barn  when  the  air  is  not  dry  ;  and  threshed  in  the  com- 
mon mode.  Before  putting  tliem  into  casks,  spread  them 
on  a  floor  for  two  or  three  weeks  to  dry.  They  yield 
from  sixteen  to  forty  bushels  an  acre.  Their  haulm  af- 
fords a  wholesome  fodder  to  neat  cattle. 

Peas  are  superior  to  Indian  corn,  for  fatting  swine,  or 
cattle.  For  this  purpose  they  should  be  steam-boiled. 
When  fed  to  horses,  they  should  be  mixed  with  oats. 
The  marrowfat  peas,  v/hen  dried  before  fully  ripe,  are 
best  for  culinary  purposes.  Feeding  stall  cattle  at  the 
rate  of  two  quarts  twice  a  day,  to  each  head,  accompa- 
nied with  plenty  of  long  food,  fatten  them  kindly. 

Some  recommend  turning  hogs  in  upon  them,  as  soon 
as  the  pods  fill ;  the  advantages  are,  the  hog's    feed  and 


128  PUMPKINS. 

fatten  themselves  ;  no  particle  of  their  manure  is  lost  ; 
that  part  of  the  crop  refused  hy  them,  is  given  bacli  to 
the  soil ;  and  the  rooting  of  these  animals,  in  this  case, 
is  a  benefit.  The  refuse  part  of  the  crop  can  be  imme- 
diately ploughed  under,  after  the  hogs  have  left  the 
field. 

A  farmer  in  North  Carolina,  who  has  been  in  the  habit 
of  planting  on  an  extensive  scale,  as  many  as  live  differ- 
ent kinds  of  peas  for  the  last  seven  or  eight  years;  say* 
that  when  cut  for  hay,  they  will  make  more  nutritious 
and  heavier  crops  than  any  thing  else. 

PUMPKINS. 

Pumkins  v/ill  grow  well  on  every  kind  of  soil  that  is 
fit  for  hoed  crops,  and  the  richer  the  better.  In  raising 
them,  it  is  usual  to  mix  them  with  the  crop  of  Indian 
corn.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  thing  is  ever  gain- 
ed by  raising  Uvo  growing  crops  together.  If  planted 
with  Indian  corn,  they  may  be  put  between  the 
hills  of  corn,  of  every  fourth  row,  and  every  fourth  hill, 
upon  a  shovel  full  of  rich  manure,  two  seeds  in  a  hill  ; 
in  this  way  they  do  well. 

It  is  recommended  to  plant  this  crop  by  itself,  in  hills 
eight  or  nine  feet  apart.  Give  the  hills  plenty  of  seeds, 
that  if  some  of  the  plants  should  be  destroyed,  enough 
may  be  left.  Two  or  three  plants  are  sufficient  for  a 
hill.  Tliough  the  crop  will  require  as  much  ploughing 
as  other  hoed  crops,  yet  the  expense  of  hoeing  will  he 
trifling  ;  it  will  exhaust  the  soil  but  little  ;  and  it  will  be 
a  fine  preparative  for  wheat,  as  the  ground,  if  the  pum- 
kins are  planted  early,  can  be  cleared  sufficiently  early 
for  sowing  that  grain. 

It  is  believed  that  an  acre,  properly  cultivated,  would 
yield  ten  tons;  and  that  these  would  be  v/orth  sixteen 
cents  per  hundred  for  feeding  and  fatting  cattle.  Mr. 
^Vicholson  estimates  the  expense  of  cultivating  an  acre, 
including  manure  and  rent  of  the  ground,  at  Jl3  75 
cen  s  ;  and  the  value  of  the  pumkins  as  estimated  above 
wou'd  be  §32,  leaving  gl8  25  cents  of  clear  profit. 

Pi  mk  ns,  if  steam-boiled,  are  a  rich  food  for  swine; 
the  see  is  should  be  taken  out,  as  they  prove  injurious 
to  tl  o  e  a'.iimals.  They  are  valuable,  as  affording  an 
early  supply  of  food  for  feeding  horses  and  fattening  ai 


HEMP.  129 

sorts  of  cattle  in  the  fall  and  fore  part  of  the  winter,  be- 
fore the  ruta  baga  crop  should  be  used 

To  save  the  seed  pure,  plant  the  several  kinds  at  as 
great  a  distance  from  each  other  as  possible.  The  sum- 
mer and  Avinter  squashes,  if  they  flower  near  together, 
will  degenerate  ;  and  the  neighborhood  of  a  pumpkin 
will  deteriorate  the  future  progeny  of  both. 

CROPS  USED  IN  MANUFACTURES. 

Three  other  green  crops  remain  to  be  treated  of; 
namely,  hemp,  tiax,  and  hops.  ]>fone  of  these,  how- 
ever can  be  viewed  as  improving  crops ;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  may  be  characterized  as  robbers,  that  ex- 
haust the  soil,  and  return  little,  or  rather  no  manure  for 
restoring  its  fertility.  They  are,  however,  all  neces- 
sary articles,  and  the  culture  of  the  tAvo  lirst,  may  be 
considered  as  materially  connected  with  national  pros- 
perity. 

HEMP. 

This  plant  requires  a  mellow  dry  soil,  and  the  richer 
the  better.  It  turns  to  but  little  account,  where  the 
soil  is  not  sufficiently  fertile.  It  will  grow  year  after 
year  on  the  same  ground,  if  properly  manured  ;  and  it 
is  not  so  exhausting,  as  some  other  crops.  It  succeeds 
well  on  drained  swamps.  If  the  soil  be  sufficiently  rich, 
it  is  the  surest  of  any  crop ;  it  is  subject  to  no  diseases ; 
severe  droughts  but  little  affect  it ;  and  cattle  will  not 
touch  it.  It  has  been  found  to  thrive  well  in  New-Eng- 
land. From  two  to  three  bushels  of  seed  are  requisite 
for  an  acre  ;  two  where  the  soil  is  middling,  and  three 
where  it  is  very  rich.  The  goodness  of  the  seed  may 
in  some  measure  be  known  by  its  feeling  heavy  in  the 
hand,  and  by  being  of  a  bright  shining  color.  It  mist  be 
of  the  last  year's  growth. 

Let  the  ground  be  well  mellowed,  b}'^  repeated  plough- 
ings  in  the  spring,  and  let  it  be  harrowed  before  the 
seed  is  sown,  and  then  harrow  the  seed  in.  It  should 
be  sown  pretty  early  in  the  spring  ;  but  not  before  the 
ground  has  sufficiently  dried  and  can  be  put  in  ample 
order.  The  seed  should  be  buried  equally  as  possible, 
in  order  that  it  may  all  start  equahy  ;  otherwise  a  part 
of  tne  plants  will  out-grow  and  keep  down  the  rest. 
*12 


130  HEMP. 

When  sown  as  early  as  above  directed,  it  will  be  fit  for 
pulling  or  emitting'  about  the  first  of  August,  the  exact 
time  being-  indicated  b}'  the  falling  of  tke  flowers  and 
withering  of  the  leaves. 

Hemp  must  be  pulled,  the  earth  shook  from  the  roots, 
or  it  can  be  cut,  tied  into  bundles,' and  without  delay  put 
into  the  water  to  rot.  The  water^-in  which  it  is  rotted, 
(or  retted  as  some  wTiters  express  it,)  should  not  run 
rapidly,  as  such  will  wash  away  the  coat.  Let  the 
sheaves  be  laid  lengthwise  across  the  stream,  and  sunk 
completely  under.  Standing  water  is  good  for  rotting  ; 
but  unless  the  hemp  be  once  turned,  that  which  lies  up- 
permost will  be  rotted  most,  owing  to  the  water  near 
the  surface  being  warmer  than  that  below.  When  suf- 
ficiently rotted,  which  Avill  generally  be  in  about  five 
days,  a  small  handful  may  be  pulled  asunder  with  a  lit- 
tle exertion  ;  and  then  it  must  be  taken  out  very  care- 
fully, so  as  not  to  injure  the  coat,  spread  and  dried  as 
soon  as  possible. 

If  there  is  not  a  sufficiency  of  w^ater  at  this  season  of 
the  year,  the  hemp  can  be  spread  on  the  ground  as  pull- 
ed, and  left  till  dry  ;  which  in  good  weather  will  require 
about  a  week.  When  dried  it  can  be  gathered  in  bun- 
dles, bound  with  straw,  and  carefully  stacked,  or  housed 
till  there  is  a  supply  of  water.  Or  hemp  can  be  dew 
rotted. 

When  sufficiently  dry,  it  is  to  be  broken  with  a  coarse 
break,  (and  if  very  long  may  be  cut  in  two,)  then  again 
broken  with  the  common  flax-break,  and  then  dressed 
in  the  manner  of  flax,  but  more  gently,  as  it  will  waste 
with  hard  beating.  An  expert  hand  will  swingle  clean 
about  100  pounds  per  da3^ 

The  male  plants  of  hemp  bear  the  flowers,  and  the 
female  plants  the  seed.  A  sufficiency  of  the  latter  are 
to  be  left  for  seed ;  and  these  will  require  about  sis 
weeks  further  time  to  ripen;  the  ripeness  being  known 
by  the  seed  turning  brown.  The  seeds  may  be  gently 
beat  off  the  stalks  when  dried;  or  they  may  be  taken 
off  by  a  coarse  kind  of  comb  made  for  the  purpose. 
The  female  hemp,  which  has  stood  to  ripen  the  seeds, 
requires  a  longer  time  to  rot  than  the  male,  and  when 
dressed  is  harsher.     The  better   way  is    to    sow  some 


FLAX.  131 

hemp,  thinly,  bj  iiself,  for  seeda  and  then    the    rest  of 
the  crop  maj  be  all  pulled  or  cut  together. 

If  hemp  be  suffered  to  stand  after  the  right  time  for 
pulling,  the  stalks  of  the  male  wither  and  blacken,  and 
then  the  coat  is  but  of  Uttle  value. 

FLAX. 

Such  crops  of  flax  as  are  usually  raised  do  not  pay 
for  the  labour  bestowed  on  them.  As  this  is  a  crop  that 
the  farmer  must  raise,  if  he  has  any  regard  to  domestic 
ecoiiomy,  the  means  of  raising  it  to  advantage  should  be 
closely  attended  to. 

Soils  most  suitable  for  flax  are  those  of  the  deep 
loamy  kinds,  and  such  as  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
vegetable  mould.  On  strong  loamy  clays  that  have  been 
well  broken  down  and  reduced  by  tillage,  it  has  also  been 
found  to  answer  well.  The  sandy  or  very  light  gravelly 
lands  are  improper.  But  whatever  the  nature  of  the 
soil  may  be,  it  should  neither  contain  too  large  a  pro- 
portion of  moisture,  nor  be  too  dry  ;  but  have  the  mould 
in  a  fine  and  well  pulverized  condition.  Such  lands  as 
are  situated  rather  low,  as  upon  the  banks  of  rivers, 
are  found  to  be  well  adapted  to  flax.  The  best  prepa- 
ratory crops  in  this  country,  at  present,  appear  to  be 
potatoes,  corn  and  roots,  if  they  have  been  well  manu- 
red ;  particularly  if  pains  be  taken  to  prevent  any  weeds 
going  to  seed  in  the  fall. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  land,  as  it  is  necessary  that 
it  should  be  made  perfectly  fine,  it  must  be  repeatedly 
ploughed  over,  with  a  shallow  furrow,  and  broken  down 
by  harrowing.  Sometimes  it  is  successfully  raised  on 
grass  land  when  ploughed  early  in  autumn,  and  properly 
prepared  in  the  spring.  No  dung  should  be  applied  to 
the  land  when  the  flax  is  sown,  but  may  be  pyt  on  boun- 
tifully with  the  previous  crop.  The  objection  is,  that 
dung  forces  the  gi*owth  so  rapidly  that  the  plants  are 
weak  and  liable  to  lodge.  Lime,  shells,  leached  ashes, 
&,c.  do  not  produce  such  effects.  Top  dressings  soon  af- 
ter the  plants  appear,  of  plaister,  ahes,  soot,  &c.  arc 
highly  beneficial,  as  they  increase  the  growth,  and  de- 
stroy worms.  In  addition  to  the  above,  it  is  requisite, 
that  the  ground  shall  not  have  borne  flax  for  about  seven 
years  previous  to  sowing.     Because  when  not  pulled  in 


132  FLAX. 

a  green  state,  but  allowed  to  stand  for  seed,  it  is  as  se- 
vere a  sconrge  as  can  be  inflicted. 

A  very  essential  point  in  raising  great  crops  of  flax,  is 
to  have  frequent  change  of  seed.  That  of  the  last  year's 
growlli- should  be  obtained  if  possible.  The  usual  marks 
of  good  seed  are,  that  it  be  plump,  oily,  and  heavy,  of 
a  bright  brown  colour,  sinking  readily  in  water,  and 
when  thrown  into  the  fire  to  crackle  and  blaze  quick. 
Experience  must  determine  the  quantity  to  be  sown.  It 
is  probable  that  a  bushel  or  six  pecks  is  the  least,  and 
two  bushels  the  extent  that  should  be  sown.  The  rich- 
est soil  requires  the  most  seed,  as  not  more  than  one 
plant  is  wanted  in  a  place.  If  sown  thinly^  the  stem  is 
shorter,  the  fibre  coarser,  and  the  seed  more  ab  mdant 
— and  vice  versa.  It  should  be  sown  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  ground  can  be  prepared  for  it ;  and  covered 
in  by  regular  harrowing,  once  or  twice  in  a  place,  with 
a  light  common  or  bush-harrow,  not  covering  it  too  deep. 
Rolling  land  after  the  seed  is  sown  brings  on  an  even- 
ness of  vegetation.  A  top-dressing  of  four  or  live  bush- 
els of  fine  salt  to  the  acre  is  found  to  be  of  great  ad- 
vantage. Some  recommend  to  divide  the  seed,  and  sow 
half  one  way  and  half  the  other,  that  it  may  be  sown 
as  evenly  as  possible. 

If  flax  is  to  be  water-rotted  (a  process  similar  to  that 
for  hemp,)  it  should  be  pulled  as  soon  as  the  blossoms 
have  fallen  off;  and  at  this  time  the  coat  of  the  siaik  is 
stronger  than  afterwards.  If  it  is  to  be  rotted  on  the 
ground,  (dew  rotted)  it  should  stand  until  nearly  ripe  ; 
or  until  the  under  leaves  fall  off;  and  then  the  seed  (as 
they  will  continue  to  ripen  afterwards)  can  be  saved, 
which  is  a  matter  of  some  consequence.  That  which  is 
designed  for  a,ffording  seed  for  sowing  again,  should  have 
the  sepds  ripened  most  before  pulling. 

The  method  common  in  this  country,  of  rotting  on 
the  ground,  is  so  well  known  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
say  more,  than  that  the  flax  should  be  spread  thin  and 
evenly,  and  that  it  should  be  turned  over,  when  about 
half  rotted.  That  which  is  rotted  too  much  may  be  re- 
stored to  its  strength,  by  keeping  it  a  few  years. 

It  is  a  very  nice  point  to  give  flax  the  proper  degree 
of  rotting.  If  rotted  too  much,  its  strength  is  impaired 
for  present  use,  and  it  wastes  more  in  cleaning ;  and,   if 


FLAX.  133 

rotted  too  little,  a  great  addition  of  labour  is  requisite 
in  fitting  it  for  use.  That  which  is  coarse  will  not  quick- 
en that  which  is  fine  ;  these  should,  therefore,  be  kept 
separate  while  rotting.  The  short  and  the  long  should 
also  be  sorted,  as  it  is  inconvenient  to  have  them  mixed 
in  dressing.  The  process  of  rotting  should  be  finished 
during  the  month  of  October  if  possible. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  pull  flax  when  dry, — free  it 
from  seed,— steam  or  boil  it  in  water  or  white  lye  about 
twelve  hours, — then  spread  and  dry  it, — break,  &:c. 
There  is  no  difficulty,  it  is  said,  in  pulling  your  flax  one 
day  and  having  a  part  of  it  spun  into  thread  the  next 
day." 

To  Fave  the  seed ;  as  soon  as  the  flax  is  dry  enough 
to  be  put  under  cover,  it  should  be  rippled.  A  comb, 
resembling  the  head  of  a  rake,  but  with  teeth  longer 
and  nearer  together,  made  of  hickory  or  oak,  is  fastened 
upon  a  block,  and  the  flax,  taken  in  parcels  no  larger 
than  the  hands  can  firmly  grasp,  is  drawn  through,  and 
the  bolls  ripped  oft';  attention  can  be  paid  to  sorting  at 
the  same  time.  The  bolls  are  to  be  riddled  and  win- 
nowed immediately;  spread  then  on  a  clean  floor,  or  on 
sheets,  in  the  sun,  and  when  sufficiently  dry,  and  begin- 
ing  to  open,  threshed.  By  this  method  the  foul  seed* 
are  completely  separated  :  A  great  improvement. 

The  farmer,  perhaps,  would  do  well  to  make  more 
of  a  business  of  raising  flax,  when  he  becomes  engaged 
in  it,  b}'^  raising  enough  in  one  season  to  Inst  two  or  three 
3^ear3,  By  cultivating  it  in  the  most  complete  manner  is 
the  only  way  to  make  the  business  profitable. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Pomeroy  of  Massachusetts,  that 
four  hundred  pounds  of  good  fiax,  and  eight  or  ten  bush- 
els of  seed,  may  fairly  be  assumed  as  a  medium  crop  on 
favourable  soils,  where  the  culture  becomes  such  an  ob- 
ject as  to  make  other  farming  operations  subservient  to 
it,  and  due  attention  is  paid  to  change  of  seed.  [See  his 
E'isays  on  Flax  Husbandry^  Mass.  Agr.  Repos. 

The  expense  of  dew  and  water-rotting,  and  of  break- 
ing by  hand,  is  saved  in  some  paris  of  our  country,  by 
the  operation  of  machinery,  recently  invented  for  the 
purpose  ;  machinery,  by  which  more  is  gained  in  quan- 
ti  y,  (0  the  dressed  flax,  than  sufficient  to  pay  the  ex- 
pense of  the  operation. 


134  HOPS. 

HOPS. 

The  following  very  good  directions  for  cultivating 
hops,  are  taken  from  the  Farmer^s  Assistant  : 

This  plant  requires  a  rich  mellow  soil,  well  prepared 
by  digging  or  deep  ploughing.  Bog  meadows  are  good 
for  raising  it,  when  properly  drained. 

The  plants  are  raised  in  hills,  six  or  seven  feet  apart, 
where  the  soil  is  not  very  rich,  and  at  a  greater  distance, 
when  richer.  When  the  plants  begin  to  shoot,  take  cut- 
tings from  branches  which  grow  from  the  main  root :  If 
of  the  last  year's  growth,  the  better  ;  and  these  are 
known  by  their  white  appearance.  Let  each  have  three 
or  four  buds  ;  bury  them  lightly  in  the  hills,  with  the 
buds  uppermost  ;  allow  two  or  three  sets  to  a.pole,  and 
three  poles  to  a  hill.  For  making  the  hills,  dig  round 
holes  three  feet  in  diameter,  a  loot  in  depth,  and  deeper 
if  the  soil  will  admit  it ;  iill  up  these  with  the  earth 
thrown  out,  well  mixed  with  old  compost,  if  the  soil  be 
not  already  very  rich. 

The  first  year,  the  hills  are  not  to  be  polled  ;  but  the 
ground  in  this,  as  in  succeeding  years,  is  to  be  kept 
mellow  and  free  from  v/eeds,  by  ploughings  and  hoeings. 
As  the  vines  rise  this  year,  let  them  be  slightly  twisted 
together,  on  each  hill,  and  let  the  hills  be  raised  a  little 
by  hoeing  in  some  earth  round  the  vines. 

Early  in  the  spring,  the  second  year,  and  always  after 
this,  the  hills  are  to  be' opened,  and  the  sprouts  or  suck- 
ers cut  ofi'  within  an  inch  of  the  old  root  ;  but  that  must 
be  left  entire,  as  well  as  those  shoots  which  inclined 
downwards  to  form  new  roots.  Some  manures  should 
occasionally  be  applied.  Poles  ten  feet  long  are  suffi- 
cient for  the  iir.^t  3'ear  ;  after  that  they  arc  to  be  fifteen, 
eighteen,  or  twenty  feet  long,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  ground.  Each  pole  should  have  three  vines  ;  and 
all  the  others  should  be  broken  off"  in  the  spring.  As 
soon  as  their  color  is  changed,  and  they  emit  a  fragrant 
smell,  they  are  to  be  gathered.  When  the  poles  are 
drawn,  cut  the  vines  three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground. 
The  best  way  to  dry  them  is  on  kilns,  with  a  moderate 
heat  ;  for  if  it  turn  the  hop  brow  n  it  will  be  injured.  Let 
them  lie  about  six  inches  thick,  and  be  frequently  turn- 
ed. When  the  seeds  crackle  a  little  they  are  sufficiently 
dried.     Or  they  may  be  dried   in   the  sun.  or  on  floors 


GRASSES.  135 

under  cover.  Before  they  are  bagged,  they  should  lie  in 
a  heap  about  four  days,  to  sweat  and  grow  tough.  The 
bags  are  to  be  of  coarse  hnen  cioth,  (the  thicker  the 
better,)  about  eleven  feet  long,  and  two  and  an  half 
yards  in  circumference  ;  so  as  to  hold  about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds.  To  bag  them,  a  hole  is  made  through 
an  upper  floor,  to  which  the  bag  is  suspended  ;  the  hops 
thrown  in,  in  small  quantities;  and  trod  down  as  hard  as 
possible. 

The  long  white  hop  is  most  esteemed,  as  yielding- the 
greatest  quantity  and  being  the  most  beautiful.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  hops  all  of  one  kind  ;  for,  if 
there  be  different  sorts,  some  will  probably  ripen  before 
©thers. 

An  acre  of  hops  well  cultivated,  will  amount  to  two 
or  three  hundred  dollars,  and  the  expense  will  not  be 
more  than  one  hundred.  If  not  wanted  at  home,  they 
are  a  good  article  for  exportation.  If  well  harvested 
they  will  keep  good  a  great  many  years. 

GRASSES. 

The  advantages  which  have  been  derived  from  the 
introduction  of  cultivated  grasses,  cannot  be  too  highly 
appreciated.  Amidst  the  variety  of  natural  produce 
there  must  be  many  plants  of  an  inferior  quality,  which 
are  rejected  by  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  Old  turf,  on 
that  account,  is  never  eaten  so  bare,  as  a  field  where  a 
few  selected  plants  alone  are  cultivated,  known  to  be 
grateful,  salubrious,  and  nourishing  to  stock. 

The  mould  of  the  ground,  which  is  laid  down  to  grass 
should  be  made  very  fine,  as  the  seeds,  being  very  small 
may  otherwise   be   covered  too  deep,  by  fallino-  below 
or  be  scorched  by  lying  above  great  clods.     Like  other 
seeds  they  require  a  due   degree    of  moisture    to  cause 
them  to  vegetate,  and  therefore  should  not  be  left  expos- 
ed to  the  rays  of  the  sun  without  being  covered  ;  for  un- 
less rainy    weather  follows    immediately   after    sowing 
many  of  the   seeds   will   not   vegetate.     Sow   them   as 
so«n    as   possible   after   the   ground   is  ploughed,  while 
the  soil  remains  moist,  and  harrow  with  a  light  harrow 
after  whioh  a  gentle   rolling   would  be  useful.     It  is  al- 
ways   good    economy    to   lay  down  rich,   and  not  poor 
ground  to  grass. 


13G  GRASSES. 

It  has  been  disputed,  whether  grass  seeds  should  be 
sown  with  or  without  grain.  The  result  of  much  care- 
ful inquiry,  however,  has  been,  that  where  equal  pains 
are  taken,  the  futufe  crop  of  grass  will  succeed  equally 
well  in  either  method ;  while  the  same  tilth  answers 
for  both  crops.  Barley  is  considered  preferable  to  oth- 
er grain,  to  sow  grass  seeds  with.  In  cases  where  the 
soil  is  so  rich,  that  there  might  be  some  risk  in  sowing  a 
full  crop  of  grain,  less  seed  is  sown,  even  as  low  as  one- 
third  of  the  usual  quantity  ;  and  in  that  case,  the  grain, 
nurses  the  young  plants  of  grass,  and  protects  them  from 
the  rays  of  too  hot  a  sun. 

Land  intended  to  be  converted  from  tillage  to  grass, 
must  either  be  dry  by  nature,  or  be  made  so  by  art,  be- 
fore it  is  possible  to  get  a  valuable  crop  of  grasses ;  all 
the  best  sorts  abhor  a  wet  bottom  when  they  are  young, 
and  will  not  root  deep  enough  in  it,  to  bear  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  seasons. 

It  is  a  bad  system  to  mix  seeds  of  different  plants  be- 
fore sowing  them,  in  order  to  have  fewer  casts.  It  la 
better  to  sow  each  sort  separately,  as  the  expense  of  go- 
ing several  times  over  the  ground  is  nothing  compared 
to  the  benefit  of  having  each  sort  equally  distributed. 
The  seeds  of  grasses,  being  so  light,  ought  never  to  be 
sown  in  a  windy  day  ;  wet  weather  ought  likewise  to  be 
avoided,  as  the  least  degree  of  poaching  is  injurious. 

The  species  of  grass  appropriated  to  any  particular 
soil  or  application  being  determined  upon,  its  seeds  can- 
not be  sown  too  plentifully,  and  no  economy  less  deserv- 
ing the  name  can  possibly  exist,  than  the  being  sparing 
of  grass  seeds.  The  seeds  of  grain  may  easily  be  sown 
too  thickly ;  but  with  respect  to  those  of  grass,  it  is 
scarcely  capable  of  occurring.  The  smaller  the  stem, 
the  more  acceptable  it  is  to  cattle  ;  and  when  the  seeds, 
particularly  of  some  grasses,  are  thinly  scattered,  their 
stems  tend,  as  it  is  called,  to  wood,  and  the  crop  is  lia- 
ble to  be  infested  with  weeds. 

Some  think  that  if  ground  is  well  manured,  good 
grasses  will  come  in  of  themselves.  Perhaps  so  ;-— but 
how  long  will  it  be  before  that  happens  ?  Clean  seed, 
and  that  which  is  known  to  be  suitable  to  the  soil, 
should  alwaj'S  be  sown.  For  though  grasses  will  gra- 
dually come  in,  no  great  crop  is  to  be  expected  the  first 


GRASSES.  137 

rear,  unless  it  be  a  crop  of  rank  and  useless  weeds. 
And  he  that  misses  of  the  lirst  year''s  crop,  loses  much, 
as  the  longer  the  land  lies,  the  more  compact,  or  bound, 
it  will   become,  and  produce  the  smaller  crops. 

It  cannot  be  doubted,  that  if  a  third  part  of  the  land, 
now  under  tillage,  were  properly  laid  down  in  grass,  for 
the  purpose  of  feeding  stock,  it  would  be  of  the  greatest 
benetit  both  to  the  farmer  and  the  public,  as  the  remain- 
der would  be  better  manured,  more  easily  cultivated,  and 
would  produce  as  much  for  consumption,  as  the  whole 
now  does.  The  failure  of  new  crops  of  grass,  is  in  a 
great  measure  owing  to  a  deficiency  of  seed,  or  to  the 
land  being  sown,  when  out  of  condition,  and  without  an 
adequate  supply  of  manure  ;  and  many  farmers  have,  in 
these  circumstances,  continued  their  fields  under  a 
course  of  planting,  to  their  own  impoverishment,  and 
the  loss  of  the  public.  Whereas  improved  rotations, 
and  in  particular,  a  greater  number  of  green  crops, 
would  enrich  any  poor  or  exhausted  arable  land. 

The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  alternate,  or 
convertible  husbandry,  cannot  be  too  much  dwelt  on. 
Mr.  Rob'jins  of  this  state,  in  his  address,  very  justly  ob- 
serves, that  a  farm  best  fitted  for  the  convertible  hus- 
bandry— convertible  from  grass  to  grain,  and  from  grain 
to  grass,  is  the  most  profitable  farm ;  and  hence  the 
value  of  all  those  means  by  which  the  farm  is  brought 
into  this  desirable  state.  None  but  those  who  have  tried 
it,  can  be  fully  aware  of  the  vast  improvement  effected 
by  laying  down  old  ploughed  land  into  grass,  as  well  as 
converting  pasture  and  meadow  lands  into  arable.  Un- 
der that  system,  when  judiciously  conducted,  the  crops 
are  always  abundant,  and  the  soil  is  kept  in  a  constant 
state  of  increasing  fertility. 

The  chief  food  of  cattle  consisting  of  grasses,  their 
importance  is  as  obvious  as  it  is  great,  and  the  distin- 
guishing and  selecting  them  cannot  be  too  fully  attended 
to.  By  this  care  the  best  grasses,  and  in  tlie  greatest 
abundance  that  the  land  admits  of,  are  secured  ;  while, 
for  want  of  this  attention,  pastures  and  meadows  are 
either  filled  with  weeds,  or  bad  and  inappropriate  grass- 
es. It  would  require  a  large  volume  to  describe  all  tl? 
kinds  of  grass  which  are  and  might  be  cultivated  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  said,  that  there  are  in  all  215  grasses 
13 


138  GRASSES. 

properly  so  called,  which  are  cultivated  in  Great  Bri- 
tiiin.  The  number  of  grasses  fit,  or  at  least  necessary, 
ior  the  purposes  of  culture,  novvever,  is  but  small. 
Some  of  these  are  best  calculated  for  moist  soils,  some 
for  dry,  some  for  pasture'',  and  some  for  mowing.  By 
the  careful  separation  and  sowing-  of  the  seeds  of  these, 
the  husbandman  would  soon  be  enabled  to  accommo- 
date the  varieties  of  his  soil,  each  with  the  grass  best 
adapted  to  it  :  the  advantage  of  which  would  infinitely 
exceed  the  trouble  necessary  for  its  accomplishment. 

Some  of  the  most  valuable  kinds  are  here  noted,  to- 
gether with  their  proper  soils,  &,c. 

Clover^  is  universally  known  as  being  an  excellent 
grass  ;  while  it  produces  the  best  hay  for  horses,  it,  at 
the  same  time,  enriches  the  ground.  As  it  is  tap-root- 
ed, it  draws  a  portion  of  its  nourishment  from  a  depth 
below  the  surface,  to  which  the  roots  of  niost  other 
plants  do  not  extend ;  and  after  the  sward  is  turned 
ever  by  the  plough,  and  the  roots  are  dissolved,  they 
make  a  fine  manure,  and  in  a  measure  prepare  the 
ground  for  v/heat,  or  almost  any  other  crop.  But  to  il- 
lustrate the  many  advantages  of  clover  not  only  for  soil- 
ing, (or  stall-feeding)  pasture  and  hay,  but  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  soil,  and  its  efficacy  in  withstanding  the 
drought,  would  require  a  greater  scope  than  our  intend- 
ed limits  will  permit. 

Clover  will  thrive  luxuriantly  in  any  tolerably  fertile 
soil,  except  a  wet  one.  It  prefers  lignt  sandy  or  loamy 
soils,  and  will,  wiT.h  the  assistance  of  piaster,  thrive  well 
upon  gravels.  A  light  top  dressing  should  be  given 
early  in  the  spring.  On  tenacious  soils,  a  small  quantity 
of  lime,  would  be  preferable,  but  on  light  land  the  ef- 
fect of  gypsum  is  astonishing. 

In  respect  of  preparation,  it  is  less  nice  than  many 
other  herbaceous  plants,  yet  the  finer  the  state  of  ihe 
mould  the  land  has  been  brought  into,  the  more  certain- 
ly and  the  better  it  succeds. 

It  is  now  generally  sown  with  barley,  or  other  spring 
grain  of  the  culmiferous  kind,  and  rarely  by  itself.  (If 
the  land  is  poor,  choose  the  crop  that  Vv'ill  aiTord  it  the 
43esl  protection  against  the  sun,  as  rye,  &c.  and  if  rich, 
the  crop  which  will  smother  it  least  in  its  infancy  as 
wheat,  oats,  kc.)     The    advantages  proposed    by    this 


GRASSES.  1 39 

practice,  are  these  :  the  preparation  given  to  the  soil 
for  the  grain  crop,  which  is  exactly  that  best  fitted  for 
the  clover;  the  protection  given  by  the  grain  to  the 
young  clover,  against  the  combined  effects  of  heat  and 
dryness ;  the  improved  condition  in  which  it  leaves  the 
soil  for  subsequent  culture.  In  this  practice,  however,  a 
less  quantity  of  grain  must  be  sown  than  usual,  because 
without  ventilation,  the  clover  plants  will  perish.  It  is 
frequently  sown  in  the  spring,  on  winter  grain ;  but  in 
this  way  it  often  happens  that  the  seeds  do  not  grow, 
owing  to  their  not  being  covered.  This  difficulty  ma}^, 
however,  be  obviated,  by  giving  the  ground  a  brushing, 
where  it  is  rough ;  or  a  light  harrowing  where  it  is 
smooth ;  either  of  which  methods,  but  particularly  the 
latter,  will  be  a  benefit  to  the  growth  of  wheat  or  rye. 
It  may  also  be  sown  with  grain  in  the  fall ;  but  there  is 
danger  in  that  case  of  its  being  killed  by  the  succeeding 
winter.  Some  recommend  sowing  half  in  the  fall  with 
the  grain,  and  half  on  a  light  snow  in  March.  It  is  in- 
dispensable to  a  good  crop  ;  that  the  seed  be  good ;  and 
regularly  and  equally  sown.  The  tests  of  good  seed 
are;  its  comparative  size  and  weight,  its  plumpness,  its 
yellow  or  purple  colour,  its  glossy  skin,  and  lastly  its 
cleanness,  or  separation  from  other  seeds  and  from  dirt. 
About  twelve  or  fourteen  pounds  is  a  suitable  quantity 
for  an  acre. 

Clover  should  never  be  cut  the  first  season,  nor  fed 
close ;  but  the  second  season,  it  should  be  cut  when  in 
full  bloom,  and  before  the  heads  begin  to  turn  brown. 
It  is  thought  best  to  exclude  sheep  and  horses  from  clov- 
er, unless  intended  for  pasturage  only.  The  cutting- 
and  curing,  if  the  crop  is  heavy,  is  very  nice  and  criti- 
cal farming.  After  being  cut  in  dry  weather  it  should 
remain  in  the  "swarth  till  it  is  dried  about  two-thirds  its 
thickness;  it  is  then  not  stre-a^cd^  but  turned  over;  the 
hay  should  be  as  little  shaken  or  scattered  about  as  pos- 
sible ;  and  raked  up  before  night.  The  next  day  it  must 
be  opened,  turned  once  or  twice,  af}d  cocked  up  again. 
It  the  weat«;er  permits,  it  will  be  im})roved  by  standing 
one  or  two  days  more  before  housing.  If  it  is  housed 
without  using  these  precautions  to  prevent  heating,  the 
application  of  salt  will  be  important ;  or  interpose  be- 
tween two  layers    of  clover,    one  of  clean  straw.     By 


1 40  GRASSES. 

the  fjrst  method,  the  whole  mass  is  made  acceptable  t» 
cattle  ;  by  the  second,  the  quantity  of  nutritive  forage 
is  increased — and  by  both  methods  the  clover  is  effectu- 
ally prevented  from  healing,  which  greatly  injures  it, 
and  renders  it  hurtful  to  horses.  If  on  twisting  some  of 
the  largest  stalks  like  a  string,  no  moisture  appears  upon 
the  surface,  it  may  be  housed  with  safety. 

When  a  crop  of  clover  seed  is  to  be  raised,  let  it  be 
from  the  last  crop  of  the  second  year;  and  sometimes  in- 
stead of  cutting  the  first,  let  it  be  pastured  till  the  10th 
of  June  :  as  suffering  ibe  crop  to  ripen,  injures  the 
roots  for  a  succeeding  crop.  In  the  first  crop,  of  either 
season,  very  little  seed  is  to  be  found. 

It  is  said  by  DukameU  that  one  acre  of  this  plant  will 
feed  as  many  cattle  as  four  or  live  oj"  common  grass  :  but 
they  must  not  be  suffered  to  eat  too  plentifully  of  it  at 
first.  It  should  be  given  by  degrees,  liii  they  are  fully 
seasoned  to  it :  nor  should  they  ever  be  turned  into  this 
ibod  in  wet  weather. 

Green  clover  is  good  food  for  swine  in  summer ;  and 
when  cut  green,  and  salted,  after  being  a  little  wi.her- 
ed,  with  about  half  a  peck  of  salt  to  a  load,  it  makes 
good  food  for  them  in  winter,  after  being  steamed  or 
boiled. 

Half  a  bushel  of  plaister,  well  mixed  with  a  suitable 
proportion  of  ashes  and  fine  salt,  strewed  over  an  acre 
of  clover  ground,  after  each  mowing,  will  make  it  much 
more  productive. 

Herd's-grass^  or  Meadow-catstail  (^Botanical  name  Phe-  \ 
hum  Pratcnse)  called  Timothy  in  the  middle  and  south- 
ern states.  It  is  improperly  called  Fox-tail^  quite  a  dif- 
ferent species.  Herds  grass  grows  best  in  rich  moist 
soil ;  but  it  will  grow  well,  for  a  few  years,  in  a  rich 
wet,  or  a  rich  arable  soil.  In  the  rich  wet  soil,  it  grad- 
ually lessens  in  product ;  while  at  the  same  time  it  gives 
way  to  wild  grasses.  In  a  rich  arable  soil,  it  gradually 
fails,  by  reason  of  the  ground  becoming  bound,  and  the 
sward  thickened  with  other  grasses.  Probably  if  it  were 
well  torn  with  the  harrow  in  the  spring,  and  not  too 
closely  pastured  in  the  fall,  and  not  at  all  in  he  spring, 
it  would  grow  well  ibr  many  years  in  such  soil.  By 
close  pasturing  in  the  fall,  it  is  ajjt  to  be  torn  out  by  the 
roots,  and  by  cropping  it  a^-ain  in  the  spring,  it    suffers 


GRASSES.  141 

much.  It  will  yield,  according  to  Mr.  ?^^icholson^  one 
half  more  hay,  when  not  pastured  at  all,  than  when 
pastured  closely  both  fall  and  spring.  In  the  richest 
soils,  and  when  not  pastured,  upwards  of  four  tons  may 
be  had  from  the  acre,  in  a  season,  at  two  mowings.  It 
requires  about  ten  or  twelve  quarts  of  the  seed  for  an 
acre. 

The  proper  time  for  mowing  it  is,  when  in  blossom, 
or  a  little  later ;  but  if  left  till  the  stalk,  or  even  the 
under  leaves  begin  to  turn,  the  true  value  of  the  crop 
is  lost.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  sow  Timothy  and 
clover  mixed  ;  but  this  should  not  be  done  when  clover 
is  sown  for  the  purpose  of  being  ploughed  in  for  man- 
ure ;  becnuse  if  clover  is  cut  when  just  arrived  at  per- 
fection, Timothy  is  then  so  young  as  to  be  in  a  very  im- 
perfect state. 

It  is  not  so  much  a  fertilizer  of  land  as  clover  :  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  said  to  bind,  and  somewhat  exhaust  the 
soil.  It  is  perennial,  and  wjU  last  beyond  the  memory 
of  man,  if  not  destroyed  by  close  pasturing. 

Lucern^  (JMedicago  Sativa)  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
productive,  and  that  which  comes  into  use  sooner  than  any 
other  of  the  artificial  grasses.  It  endures  drought  well, 
and  grows  very  late.  Horses,  cows,  sheep,  and  swine, 
are  very  fond  of  it,  when  it  is  mown  gnd  given  to  them 
green,  which  is  the  most  useful  application  of  it.  It 
does  best  upon  rich,  dryish  ioams,  ^vhere,  if  the  soil  is 
clear,  three  to  five  tons  of  excellent  hay  can  be  cut  to 
the  acre.  It  is  said  to  grow  well  in  the  coldest  climates  ; 
but  those  which  are  mild  are  most  suitable  for  it.  It  is 
supposed  that  our  dry  warm  summers  are  more  favora- 
ble to  its  gro\Yth,  than  the  cool  and  moist  ones  of  Great 
Britain.  Mr.  Livivgsion  of  New-York,  has  obtained 
greater  products  than  those  mentioned  by  British  wri- 
ters. With  the  best  cultivation  and  plentiful  manuring, 
nine  tons  per  acre  have  been  had  in  a  season.  It  can  be 
cut  several  times  a  year. 

The  ground  should  be  prepared  by  deep  and  frequent 
ploughings.  It  can  be  sown  in  May,  or  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  warm,  either  by  itself  or  with  a 
crop  that  will  not  lodge,  thinly  seeded.  About  twenty 
pounds  of  seed  are  required  for  ;.n  acre. 

As  soon  as  it  begins  to  blossom,  it  should  be  mown. 
IS* 


142  «JRAS9ES. 

In  making  it  into  hay,  the  same  direction3  should  be  at- 
tended to  as  for  clover.  During-  the  first  season  of  its 
growth,  the  product  will  not  be  so  large  as  at\erwards  : 
In  this  season  it  is  most  infested  with  weeds,  which  can 
easily  be  destroyed  by  frequent  mowings,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  soiling.  After  the  first  season,  it  may  be  fed 
without  much  injury. 

It  is.  recommended  by  European  writers,  after  the 
grass  has  stood  two  or  three  years,  to  harrow  it  early 
in  the  spring;  and  it  issaid,  if  the  roots  are  considerably 
torn  by  the  operation,  they  will  not  be  injured.  This 
should  be  repeated  every  second  spring,  after  applying 
a  good  top  dressing  of  manure. 

On  dairy  farms  it  is  of  great  utility.  Where  the  soils 
are  suitable,  a  few  acres  under  this  grass,  round  the 
house,  must,  in  all  cases,  be  valuable  for  the  purpose 
of  early  green  food.  Lucern  is  much  superior  to  clover 
for  soiling  milch  cows,  giving  no  taste  to  the  milk  or 
butter,  and  one  acre  is  sufficient  for  three  or  four  cows 
during  the  soiling  season.  This  grass  lasts  twelve  years 
or  more,  and  exhausts  the  soil  but  little.  When  it  turns 
yellow  it  should  be  mowed,  and  the  plants  will  come  up 
free  from  the  disorder. 

Sanfoin^  (^Hedysarum  onohrychis)  will  grow  very  well 
•n  dry  stony  soils,  that  are  unfit  for  any  good  cultiva- 
tion, and  will  produce  on  the  worst  lands  a  ton  of  hay, 
beside  considerable  after-math  in  the  season.  Noth- 
ing is  better  to  soil  horses  and  cows  with.  On  good 
dry  lands,  the  product  will  be  much  larger.  This  plant 
will  make  a  much  greater  increase  in  poor  ground  thaa 
any  of  the  natural  grasses  ;  which  is  principally  owing 
to  its  having  a  long  perpendicular  root,  which  sinks  to 
a  depth  of  several  feet. 

It  requires  a  soil  free  of  the  seeds  of  weeds,  and  well 
mellowed  by  deep  ploughing.  The  seed  should  be 
fresh^  and  three  or  iour  bushels  to  the  acre,  sown  very 
early  in  the  spring.  Those  which  have  a  bright  husk, 
a  plump  kernel,  bluish  or  gray  without,  and  greenish 
within,  are  best.  It  is  the  best  method  to  sow  from  on  a 
to  three  bushels,  with  five  pounds  of  clover,  to  the 
acre  ;  as  the  clover  serves  to  keep  down  the  weeds  till 
the  sainfoin  has  become  well  rooted.      it   may  also   be 


aRA33E«.  143- 

lown  with  oats  or  barley.  No  cattle  should  feed  on  it 
the  two  tirst  seasons. 

When  cured  into  hay,  it  should  be  cut  before  the 
blossoms  turn  much  ;  (it  is  at  no  time  to  be  cut  before 
it  is  in  full  bloom  ;)  and  manag"ed  the  same  as  for  clov- 
er. It  is  a  fine  hay  for  sheep.  If  saved  for  seed  it 
must  be  the  first  cutting.  In  collecting  the  seed,  cut 
the  grass  when  the  early  seeds  are  getting  ripe,  with- 
out waiting  for  the  latter  blossoms  to  shed.  Thresh  it 
in  the  field  on  a  cloth,  as  much  will  be  lost  by  shedding 
if  carried  to  the  barn. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Rohhins^  that  this  plant  is  as 
hardy  as  the  red  clover,  as  little  liable  to  be  winter 
killed;  for  the  winter  of  1822,  which  killed  so  much 
clover,  did  not  affect  at  all  the  sanibin  plants,  in  his 
garden,  and  no  way  protected  from  the  irost. 

Redtop^  (^Agrostis  vulgaris'^ — with  spreading  panicle, 
and  the  branches  divergent  and  capillary,  differs  from 
spear  grass  (^Poa  pratensis^  also  excellent)  with  which  it 
has  been  confounded,  and  which  flowers  much  earlier. 
Red-top  is  cultivated  considerably  in  this  part  of  the 
country,  and  seems  to  succeed  well  on  either  moist  or 
dryish  land.  Some  say  that  on  wet  land  no  grass  an- 
swers so  well  as  red-top.  It  yields  a  good  crop,  and 
makes  good  hay. 

Orchard  Grass^  {Dactijlis  glomerata)  called  Cock's 
foot  by  English  writers.  This  grass  is  worthy  of  being 
cultivated  on  account  of  its  uncommon  luxuriance.  Ox- 
en, horses,  cows,  and  sheep  eat  it  readily,  and  it  is  val- 
uable on  account  of  its  expellent  after-feed.  It  affords 
an  abundant  crop,  springs  early,  and  grows  fast,  makes 
excellent  hay,  and  yields  abundance  of  see*^,  which  is 
not  easily  shaken  out.  It  is  a  hardy  grass,  found  highly 
useful  on  moist  loamy  soils, — thriving  under  the  shade 
of  trees,  which  probably  occasioned  its  name.  In.in- 
stances  where  Herds-grass  (^Thnothy)  is  now  used  with 
clover,  farmers  would  do  well  to  make  the  experiment 
of  substituting  orchard  grass.  This  comes  early,  is  soon 
mature,  and  continues  green  until  late  in  the  season  as 
clover  does  :  Herds-gra^s  is  late  in  coming  in  the  spring, 
and  late  in  ripening.  Orchard  grass  intended  for  fodder 
should  be  cut  while  young  and  tender. 


144  GRASSES. 

Tall  Oat-grass  (^Avena  elaiior)  flowers  in  June,  and, 
though  coarse,  is  very  profitable  when  closely  fed  down, 
It  is  very  luxuriant  in  its  growih,  and  makes  tolerable 
hay,  to  which  a  little  salt  applied  when  laid  down  in 
the  mow  would  he  an  improvement.  All  animals  that 
are  commonly  fed  with  hay,  eat  it  with  pleasure.  It 
has  two  advantages  over  Herds-grass, — earliness,  and 
great  after  crop ;  and  would  probably  answer  well  for 
^oiling,  as  it  starts  very  early,  and  grows  very  late.  It 
produces  well  both  in  good  and  bad  soils, — but  should 
be  cut  in  flower  while  the  stalk  is  fine  and  tender. 

Fo's'l  Meadozv  Grass  (^Poa  aviaria.)  It  acquired  this 
name  by  being  supposed  to  be  brought  to  a  meadow  in 
Dedham,  Massachusetts,  by  water  fowl.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent grass  for  wet  meadows,  affording  very  good  hay  for 
horses,  and  neat-cattle  particularly.  Mr.  Eliot  thinks 
drained  swamps  are  a  very  proper  soil  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  grass  ;  and  observes  that  it  keeps  green  for 
a  long  time,  so  that  it  may  be  mowed  at  any  time  from 
July  to  October  ;  and  that  it  is  so  fruitful  as  to  produce- 
three  tons  of  hay  on  an  acre. 

Siriped-leavcd  reed  grass^  (^Phalaris  arundinacea .)  Tins 
like  the  last  does  well  on  wet  soils.  This  grass  (in  the 
Appendix  to  Davy's  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemis- 
try) is  said  to  succeed  on  almost  any  soil, — but  is  par- 
ticularly luxuriant  on  strong  moist  lands.  The  strong 
nutritive  powers  which  it  possesses,  recommend  it  to  the 
notice  of  occupiers  of  such  lands,-^-which  cannot  be 
drained.  Its  produce  is  great,  and  the  foliage  will  not 
be  denominated  coarse,  if  compared  with  those  which 
afford  a  produce  equal  in  quantity.  We  have  made  trial 
of  it;  andlRnd  it  will  flourish  on  common  loam,  spread- 
ing freely  by  its  roots.  Some  of  it  in  a  dried  state,  of- 
fered to  oxen,  was  readily  eaten. 

Cichory:  or  Succory^  {^Cichorium  intyhus^'^  is  a  hardy 
plant,  and  may  be  found  beneficial  on  poor  sandy  or 
gravelly  soils.  For  feeding  cattle,  it  is  usually  sown 
with  oats,  or  other  spring  grain  ;  but  for  soiling  it  is 
sown  alone.  Mr.  Yovn^  thinks  it  best  to  be  drilled  alone 
on  poor  land,  in  rows  about  nine  inches  asunder.  On 
large  tracts  of  poor  land,  it  is  thought  it  would  incr  ;'re 
the  produce  ten  fold.  Cichory  is  very  luxurinnt,  and 
will  admit  of  being  often  cut  for  soiling.     It   may   also 


GRASSES.  -  145 

be  made  into  hay,  which,  though  coarse,  affords  consid- 
erable nourishment.  Sir  J.  SidcJair  says,  it  is  strongly 
recommended,  as  hardy  ; — calculated  for  the  poorest 
soils  ;  and  adapted  even  for  bogs  ;  excellent  for  pasture 
or  soiling ;  producing  a  greater  quantity  of  food  for 
sheep,  than  any  other  grass  now  in  cultivation.  It  bears 
close  feeding  well. 

The  following  grasses  are  not  generally  cultivated 
here;  but  are  well  deserving-  of  attention,  and  will,  pro- 
bably, be  soon  introduced  : — some  of  them  native  plants. 

Florin  {^Agrostis  Stolonifara)  requires  a  moist  climate 
or  a  wet  soil,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  useful  plant  fhat 
bogs  can  produce,  it  yields  abundantly  ;  and  sheep, 
neat  caf'ie,  and  horses,  are  very  fond  of  it. 

Fertih  Meado^j-grass  (^Poa  feriUis)  contains  a  1  arge 
proporticn  of  nutritive  matter. 

Stleadoro  Foxtail  {Jllopecurus  pratensis.^  This  is  one  of 
the  earliest  grasses  ;  and  is  considered  as  holding  a  high 
place  among  good  grasses,  whether  used  in  a  fresh  state 
as  fodder,  or  made  into  hay. 

Sweet'scented  Vernal  grass  {Anthoxantriiiin  ordoratum;^ 
and 

Jvleadow  soft-grass  (^Holcus  lanatus)  deserve  some  at- 
tention ;  the  last  v/ell  calculated  for  sheep. 

Fall  Fescue  grass  {Festuca  elaiior^  stands  higii,  as  to 
nutriment  afforded  by  the  whole  crop,  when  cut  at  the 
time  of  lloweriiig. 

Sheep'^s  Fescit  (^Festuca  ovhia)  grows  well  in  dry,  sandy 
soils.  Sheep  are  Ibnd  of  it,  and  soon  become  iat  from 
its  use. 

Blue  grass  {Foa  compressa)    is   worth   cultiyating.     It 
flourishes  in  dry   sells ;  and    itd    darl:    green,  succulent 
leaves,  alTord  excellent  pasture,  particularly  for  sheep 
To  these  may  be  added, 

Guinea  grass  (^Panicum  maxhnvm)  which  may  be  cut 
repeatedly,  and  is  very  productive.  It  is  cultivated  in 
the  state  of  Mississippi,  and  no  doubt,  can  be  cultivated 
here  to  advantage. 

Barn  grass  (^Panicum  cms  galli)  so  common  on  rich 
cultivated  grounds,  should  arrest  our  a.tention  as  an  arti- 
cle suitable  for  soiling. 


14b  '  MEADOWS. 

MEADOWS. 

The  lands  which  are  most  proper  to  remain  in  grass, 
and  which,  if  in  a  state  of  tillage,  ought  to  be  converted 
into  grass,  are  the  following,  viz. 

1.  Lands  in  the  vicinity  of  largo  towns,  where  manure 
is  plentiful,  and  where  hay  is  always  in  demand,  and 
consequently  dear. 

2.  Lands  situated  near  rivers  or  brooks,  which  are 
capable  of  being  improved  by  irrigation. 

3.  Lands  i;ying  in  the  vallies  of  hiiiy  countries  ;  where 
old  meadow  land  is  scarce  and  valuable  ;  and  where  the 
p;rea{er  part  of  the  tillage  land  is  of  such  a  nature,  that 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  convert  it  into  good  grass  lan«j. 

4.  All  cold,  strong  grass-lands,  which,  if  ploughed  up, 
would  be  inapplicable  to  root  crops,  and  to  the  purpos- 
es of  modern  liusbandry. 

The  generality  of  farmers,  in  this  country,  mistake 
tncir  interest,  by  having  too  large  a  proportion  of  their 
lands  in  grass,  for  mowing.  Half  the  usual  quantity 
with  the  best  management,  would  produce  as  much  hay 
as  they  need,  a  great  deal  more  than  they  commonly 
get;  besides  saving  them  expense  and  much  hard  labor. 
I'armers  shoald  study  tlieir  own  ease,  pleasure  and  pro- 
fit, by  fitting  a  small  piece  of  meadow  so  as  to  yield  them 
a  sufliciency  of  hay.  An  acre,  at  two  mowings,  can  be 
made  to  yield  four  tons  of  hay,  and  at  this  rate,  ten 
acres  would  yield  sufficient  for  a  hundred  acre  farm. 
The  greater  ease,  and  saving  of  expense,  in  gathering 
forty  tons  of  hay  from  ten  acres  of  tine  smooth  meadow, 
instead  of,  perhaps,  twenty-five  of  rough  meadow,  ought 
to  induce  a  farmer  to  improve  a  part  of  his  meadows,  to 
answer  in  place  of  the  whole. 

Bog-meadows,  if  well  drained,  and  manured  with  up- 
land earth,  will  produce  prodigious  crops  of  herds-grass, 
&.C.  Where  moss  prevails  in  gniss-ground,  that  is  not  very 
Wet,  apply  a  heavy  sharp  toothed  harrow  ;  strew  sonie 
seeds  of  herds-grass,  or  other  good  grass,  over  it,  and 
give  it  a  good  dressing  of  a  mixture  of  sheep  dung  and 
sand,  or  other  warm  manure  that  is  suitable  to  a  cold 
soil/'  There  is  no  danger  of  destroying  tiie  roots  of  gra^s 
by  this  operation. 

Land  should  never  be  laid  down  to  mowing,  that  has 
been  exhausted  by  cropping.     It  is  always  advantageous 


HAYMAKIXG.  14? 

to  manure  it  well.  Rolling,  immediately  after  the  seed 
is  sown,  has  many  advantages.  Upland  meadows  should 
have  a  dressing  of  good  dung,  or  compost,  every  two  or 
three  years  :  Every  year  would  be  better.  A  bush  har- 
row should  be  drawn  over  the  surface,  which  will  break 
the  small  lumps  remaining  in  the  manure,  and  bring  it 
closer  to  the  roots  of  the  grass.  When  the  sward  binds 
too  much,  break  it  up  and  till  the  ground  ;  or  scarify  and 
apply  manures.  The  binding  is  generally  occassoned 
by  too  close  feeding. 

Meadows  may  be  pastured  moderately  in  the  fall,  but 
not  closely.  A  part  of  the  after  growth  should  be  left 
to  cover  the  roots  during  winter.  They  should  never 
be  fed  in  the  spring  ;  the  feet  of  the  cattle  at  that  time 
do  great  injury.  By  this  bad  management,  too,  all  the 
best  grasses  are  eaten  out,  and  destroyed  by  the  feet  of 
the  cattle ;  and  wild  grasses  usurp  their  places.  Mea- 
dows which  are  entirely  of  wild  grass,  are  much  less  lia- 
ble to  be  injured,  by  close  feeding  than  others. 

Where  a  meadow  is  quite  wild,  it  should  be  mowed 
rather  before  the  grass  has  attained  its  full  size,  and  in 
this  way  it  may  yield  a  tolerably  good  second  crop.  By 
early  mov/ir^g,  the  grass  may  be  out  of  the  way  before  the 
heavy  rains  which  often  fall  in  Juh^ 

Grass  lands,  under  the  above  management,  would  pro- 
duce larger  crops.  The  surface  would  be  covered  in 
the  spring  with  a  fine  verdure.  The  crops  would  cover 
the  ground  so  soon  as  to  prevent  most  of  the  ill  eifects 
of  drought ;  the  thickness  of  its  growth,  causing  it  to 
retain  most  of  the  moisture  that  fails  in  dews  and  rains. 

HAYMAKING. 

In  cutting  grass  crops,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  in 
the  most  suitable  state  of  growth  and  maturity,  for  af- 
fording the  best  and  most  nulricious  fodder.  With  this 
view,  they  should  neither  be  cut  at  too  early  a  period, 
nor  suffered  to  stand  too  long ;  as  in  the  former  case 
there  will  be  considerable  loss  in  the  drying  from  the 
produce  being  in  so  soft  and  green  a  condition,  and  in 
the  latter  from  a  large  proportion  of  the  nourishing  pro- 
perties being  expended.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that 
grass,  in  general  when  mown  before  it  is  in  full  flower, 
while  the  rich  saccharine  juice  is  in  part  retained,  is  in 


148  HAYMAKING. 

the  most  proper  condition  for  being  cut  down,  as  at  that 
period  it  must  contain  the  largest  proportion  oi"  nutri- 
tious materials,  but  which  then  begin  to  be  absorbed, 
and  taken  up  in  proportion  as  the  flowers  expand,  and 
the  seeds  ripen.  But  there  are  other  circumstances, 
besides  those  of  ripeness,  to  be  attended  to  in  determin- 
ing the  period  of  cutting  crops  of  gras-^,  as  in  some  cases, 
■when  they  are  thick  upon  the  ground,  the  ]>ottom  parts 
become  of  a  yellow  colour  before  the  flowering  fully 
takes  place ;  or  in  moist  meadows  when  very  tall  it  is 
liable  to  fall  down  and  lodge;  under  such  circumstances 
it  will  always  be  the  most  advisable  practice  to  mow  as 
soon  as  the  weather  will  possi!)ly  admit ;  for  if  this  be 
neglected,  it  will  rot,  or  acquire  a  disagreeable  flavour, 
and  Lecome  of  little  value.  It  should  be  remembered 
also,  that  the  soil  is  much  less  exhausted  if  the  grass  is 
cut  before  the  seed  forms.  If  a  meadow  is  to  be  mowed 
twice  in  a  season,  the  first  crop  ought  to  be  cut  earlier 
than  where  mowed  but  once,  in  order  that  the  roots 
may  recover  immediately  and  be  ready  for  vegetation 
afresh. 

Where  mowing  grounds  have  a  smooth  surface,  care 
must  be  taken  to  cut  the  grass  as  close  and  evenly  as 
po?siI>le.  Grass  will  not  thrive  well  that  is  not  mown 
quite  close  ;  and  the  loss  in  the  crop  where  this  is  not  done 
is  very  considerable,  as  one  inch  ai  the  bottoimreighs  more 
than  several  at  the  top.  But  in  cutting  rowcn  or  second 
crops  of  grass,  more  attention  in  these  diflerent  respects 
will  be  necessary,  as  the  crops  are  more  dilficult  to  cut. 
They  should  always  be  cut  as  much  as  possible  when 
the  dew  is  upon  them  ;  and  as  soon  as  there  is  a  tolera- 
ble growth,  as  by  waiting  the  season  is  getting  more  un- 
favourable for  making  them  into  hay  ;  and  vvhen  not 
well  made  this  hay  is  of  little  value.  It  requires  u  much 
longer  time  to  dry  than  the  flrst  crop. 

For  haymaking,  it  is  essential  to  have  dry  weather ; 
and  the  prospect  ibr  this  ought  always  to  be  an  object 
of  attention.  It  has  been  found  by  actutil  observations 
for  a  number  of  years,  that  on  an  average,  more  rain 
falls  in  Slimmer  al\er  the  15th  or  20th  of  July,  than  be- 
fore. Farmers  \v\\\  do  well,  therefore,  to  improve  as 
much  as  possible  the  forepart  of  the  season  in  ha}'- 
making.     It  is  a  fact  not  generally  known,  though  made 


HAYMAKING.  149 

public  some  years  asfo  by  a  French  philosopher,  that 
the  web  of  the  common  spider  is  a  sure  index  of  the 
state  of  the  air  for  twelve  or  fourteen  days  to  come. 
If  the  weather  is  to  be  fair  and  calm,  the  principal 
thread  will  be  spun  to  a  great  length  ;  if  on  the  con- 
trary the  weather  is  to  be  stormy  and  boisterous,  the 
thread  will  be  short  and  thick,  for  obvious  reasons;  and 
if  the  spider  is  seen  to  repair  the  damages  its  slender 
thread  may  happen  to  sustain,  you  may  calculate  with 
certainty  upon  pleasant  weather  lor  many  days. 

In  converting  cut  grass  into  hay,  the  great  art  consists 
in  rendering  it  sufficiently  dry  to  prevent  its  heating  too 
much  in  the  stack  or  mow,  and  at  the  same  time  pre- 
serving as  great  a  portion  of  the  natural  juices  of  the 
plants  as  the  process  is  capable  of  admitting  of  without 
danger. 

If  the  weather  is  so  unfavourable,  that  hay  cannot  be 
thoroughly  cured  ;  the  application  of  from  four  to  eight 
quarts  of  salt  to  the  ton  is  recommended.  In  this  way 
it  can  be  saved  in  a  much  greener  state,  and  the  benefit 
the  hay  derives  from  the  salt  is  more  than  four  fold  its 
value.  Ground  mows  are  more  liable  to  take  damage  by 
moisture,  than  those  upon  scaffolds.  The  larger  the 
mow,  the  drier  the  hay  should  be.  To  prevent  hay 
from  damaging  in  a  large  mow,  some  recommend  bar- 
rels or  stuffed  sacks  to  be  placed  near  the  centre,  and 
gradually  raised  as  the  mow  is  raised:  These  form  open- 
ings in  the  middle,  through  which  the  steam  of  the  heated 
hay  can  pass  off,  and  thereby  prevent  it  from  being  mow 
burnt.  Another  method  is,  to  put  the  driest  hay  in  the 
centre,  and  the  wetest  nearest  the  outsides.  Some 
choose  that  a  barn  should  have  large  gaps  between  the 
boards  that  the  ha},  &c,  may  have  air.  This  is  a  mista- 
ken notion  ;  for  the  hay  that  is  nearest  to  the  gaps  will 
lose  its  sweetness. 

Stacking  hay  in  meadows,  to  be  fed  out  there,  is  a 
poor  plan ;  as  the  meadows  are  in  this  way  often  much 
injured  by  the  treading  of  the  cattle  ;  and,  when  this 
is  not  the  case,  much  hay  is  generally  wasted,  and  the 
dung  of  the  cattle  turns  to  little  or  no  account.  If  the 
farmer  has  not  sufficient  room  to  house  ail  his  hay,  he 
ought  to  stack  it  adjoining  his  barn,  and  then  it  can  be 
easily  thrown  in  at  once,  when  his  barn  is  emptied. 
14 


1 50  HAYMAKING. 

As  narrow  wheels  sink  into  the  ground  and  destroy 
miich  grass,  they  should  ne?er  be  used  on  meadow 
grounds,  but  broad  ones  should  be  substituted  in  their 
stead. 

Horsc-rakes  are  very  useful  on  all  smooth  meadows. 
It  is  said,  a  man,  horse,  and  boy,  will  gather  hay  with 
this  implement,  as  fast  as  six  men  in  the  ordinary  way. 
The  expense  of  the  rake  will  not  exceed  two  dollars. 
It  is  composed  of  a  piece  of  scantling  three  by  three 
inches,  ten  feet  long,  into  which  twenty-five  teeth,  one 
inch  by  one  and  an  half  in  diameter,  nearly  two  feet 
long,  and  three  inches  apart,  are  inserted  horizontally. 
The  teeth  should  be  made  to  turn  up  a  little  at  the  end, 
to  prevent  their  running  into  the  earth.  Eight  pins 
twenty-four  inches  in  length  are  driven  perpendicular 
into  the  scantling,  and  into  another  light  piece  at  top, 
and  there  are  also  attached  two  handles,  similar  to  those 
of  a  plough.  The  horse  is  connected  by  a  rope  at  e  ich 
end.  When  in  operation,  the  teeth  run  along  the  ground 
under  the  hay,  and  as  they  take  it  up  the  upright  slats 
retain  it  till  the  rake  is  full,  when  the  man  who  holds  it 
turns  it  over,  and  thus  empties  it  in  a  row  ;  then  lifts  it 
over  the  hay  thus  emptied,  and  sets  it  in  beyond  it ;  and 
so  on  till  it  is  again  filled.  When  one  strip  across  the 
piece  is  thus  raked  up,  the  horse  is  turned  round,  and 
another  strip  is  raked  in  the  same  manner,  emptying 
the  hay  at  the  ends  of  the  last  heaps  raked  up,  so  that 
in  this  way  winrows  are  formed.  The  winrows  can 
then  be  dragged  up  by  the  rake  into  bundles,  large 
enough  for  making  into  cocks.  This  instrument  is  very 
useful  in  the  grain  field  after  the  harvest  is  off.  It  not 
only  combs  the  stubble,  and  gives  the  grass  a  better  op- 
portunity to  grow,  but  it  saves  a  large  quantity  of  grain. 

Iq  summer  harvesting  and  mowing  it  has  been  too 
customary  to  use  ardent  spirits.  We  are  confident  the  ef- 
fects of  Pandora's  fabled  box  never  produced  one  half  the 
ills  among  mankind  (even  in  story)  that  have  ia  reality 
been  occasioned  by  the  fell  products  of  the  accursed 
alembic, — "  whose  worm  out-venoms  all  the  worms  of 
Nile."  Health  and  activity  are  to  be  looked  for  only 
among  those  who  use  not  ardent  spirits.  In  harvest 
time,  or  on  any  occasion  of  increased  labour,  farmers 
could  »ot  use  perhaps  a  more  refreshing  drink  than  milk 


LIVE  STCCK. 


151 


^nd  water,  sometimes  sweetened  and  a  little  cyder  ad- 
ded, or  vinegar  and  water  sweetened ;  or  good  small 
beer.  We  know,  from  long  experience,  ardent  spirits 
are  by  no  means  necessary  ;  even  when  on  long  jour- 
ney's, and  suffering  "the  paltings  of  the  pitiless  storm." 
Even  were  we  strong  calvinists,  or  as  firm  fatalists  as  the 
Turks,  and  so  should  conclu.de  that  all  the  temperance 
we  could  possibly  exercise,  would  not  prolong  life  a  sin- 
gle day  ;  yet  we  might  cherish  the  sublime  satisfaction 
of  living  while  we  live  ;  for  we  look  on  those  as  worse 
than  half  dead  to  all  true  enjoyment,  who  drag  out  a 
wretched  life  of  intemperance.  O  beware  of  inceptive 
(often  deceptive  and  seductive)  ingurgitations.  In  our 
revolutionary  war.  Dr.  Rush  recommended  that  instead 
of  rum,  which  could  not  be  had,  the  labourers  in  har- 
vest should  mix  a  very  small  proportion  of  vinegar  with 
the  water  used  as  drink.  This  succeeded  so  well  that 
years  afterwards,  in  many  places  vinegar  continued  to 
be  used,  though  rum  could  easily  be  had.  The  pref- 
erence of  vinegar  to  rum  is  accounted  for  in  this  man- 
ner; severe  labour  or  exercise  excites  a  degree  of  fe- 
ver, and  that  fever  is  increased  by  spirits  or  ferment- 
ed liquor  of  any  sort ;  but  vinegar  at  the  same  lime 
that  it  prevents  mischief  from  drinking  cold  water  during 
the  heat  and  perspiration  occasioned  by  exercise,  allays 
the  fever  ;  and  the  labourers  found  themselves  more 
refreshed  and  less  exhausted  at  night,  Avhen  vinegar  was 
used  instead  of  rum.  The  Romans  used  vinegar  to  mix 
with  water  for  the  drink  of  their  soldiers.  I  cooled 
the  heat  of  my  blood  with  vinegar,  which  I  mixed 
with  water  and  sugar,  and  drank  of  it  largely  ;  said 
the  celebrated  Denon^  who  was  with  the  French  ar- 
my in  Upper  Egypt.  The  labourers  in  some  districts 
of  England,  it  is  said,  during  harvest  make  use  of  no 
other  beverage  than  milk  and  water,  which  is  found  to 
allay  the  fever,  and  quench  the  thirst,  much  more  than 
beer  or  ale :  they  confess  that  they  are  much  sooner 
thirsty  after  drinking  either  of  these,  than  they  are  af- 
ter drinking  milk  and  water. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

According  to  the  present  improved  system  of  farming, 
there  Is  such  a  connection  between  the  cultivation  of 
the  ground  and  the   breeding,  rearing,  and  iattening;  of 


152  LIVE  STOCK. 

•lomestic  animnls,  that  the  one  cnnnot  he  neglected  with- 
out injury  to  the  other.  If  no  more  Hve  stock  were 
kept  on  the  farm,  than  should  he  necessary  lor  lahour  and 
food;  and  all  the  crops  were  sold  off,  the  income  for  a 
few  years  might  exceed  what  could  be  derived  from  a 
full  stock  of  beasts  kept  on  the  farm  and  fattened.  But 
how  grea^  the  injustice  to  the  soil !  to  what  a  heartless 
unproductive  state  it  soon  would  be  reduced!  Experi- 
ence clearly  demonstrates  that  there  are  few  countries 
so  well  adapted  as  New-England  to  the  breeding  and  im- 
provement of  live  stock.  The  extent  and  richness  of 
her  natural  pastures  are  admirably  calculated  for  this 
purpose.  That  with  comparatively  few  exceptions,  lit- 
tle attention  is  bestowed  to  the  improvement  of  our  breeds 
of  cattle,  is  not  to  be  denied;  and  yet  if  we  consider 
the  immense  dilTerence  there  is  between  the  profits  de- 
rivable from  domestic  animals  of  an  inferior  and  superi- 
or quality  ;  and  at  the  same  time  bear  in  mind,  that  the 
degree  of  care  and  expense  necessary  to  be  bestowed 
upon  each  is  not  materially  varient,  we  shall  find  abun- 
dant cause  of  wonder  that  the  fact  should  be  so.  And 
as  domestic  animals  are  found  to  degenerate,  unless 
pains  be  taken  to  prevent  it ;  it  becomes  an  essential 
point,  therefore,  for  the  iarmer  to  be  diligent  in  select- 
ing those  breeds  which  are  found  to  be  most  valuable, 
as  well  from  those  raised  in  his  own  stock,  as  from 
those  which  may  be  obtained  elsewhere. 

The  most  desirable  properties  of  live  stock  in  gen- 
r»ral :  are,  suitable  size ;  form ;  early  maturity  ;  a 
hardiness  of  constitution  ;  proUfick  quality  ;  a  ten- 
dency to  grow ;  a  disposition  to  fatten ;  and  lightness  of 
oifal.  The  passion  for  the  largest  kinds  of  animals  has 
been  a  great  error  with  the  improvers  of  live  stock,  in 
this  country.  The  largest  and  smallest  breeds  are  the 
very  worst ;  and  ought  to  be  avoided  in  cattle,  and  gen- 
erally in  all  animals.  The  form  should  be  compact,  so 
that  no  part  of  the  animal  should  be  disproportioned  to 
the  other ;  and  the  whole  distinguished  by  a  general 
fulness  and  rotundity  of  shape  ;  the  chest  should  be 
broad  ;  for  no  animal  whose  chest  is  narrow,  can  easily 
be  made  fat ;  the  carcass  should  be  deep  and  straight ; 
the  belly  should  be  of  a  moderate  size  ;  the  head  and 
bones  and  other  parts  of  inferior  value,  should  be  as 
"mall  as  is  consistent  with   strength,  and  with  the  other 


LIVE  STOCK.  153 

properties  which  the  animal  ought  to  posses:*.  The 
form  must  likewise  be  such,  as  to  contain  the  greatest 
possible  proportion  of  the  finer,  compared  to  the  coars- 
er and  less  valuable  parts  of  the  animal. 

The  art  of  improved  breeding  consists,  in  making  a 
careful  selection  of  males  and  females,  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  a  stock,  with  fewer  defects,  and  with  great- 
er perfections  than  their  parents  ;  in  which  their  mutu- 
al properties  shall  be  combined,  and  their  mutual 
faults  corrected.  It  was  upon  this  principle  ot  selec- 
tion, that  Bakewell  of  England,  has  rendered  himself 
famous  by  his  breed  of  cattle  and  sheep.  His  principal 
aim  was  to  gain  the  best,  whether  sheep  or  cow,  which 
would  weigh  the  most  in  the  most  valuable  joints  ;  and 
at  the  same  time  that  he  gained  the  shape  which  was  of 
the  greatest  value  in  the  smallest  compass,  he  found  by 
experience  that  he  gained  a  breed  much  hardier  and 
easier  fed  than  others.  In  his  breed  of  cattle,  his  max- 
im was,  the  smaller  the  bones  the  truer  will  be  the  make 
of  the  beast  ;  the  quicker  it  will  fatten,  and  the  weight 
will  have  a  larger  proportion  of  valuable  meat.  If  there 
was  deficiency  in  any  point,  he  would  cross  his  animal 
with  one  that  was  amply  supplied  in  that  part  ;  and  if 
any  point  of  his  animal  was  too  heavy,  by  an  opposite 
cross  he  would  reduce  the  superfluity.  By  such  man- 
agement, diligently  pursued,  he,  at  length,  gave  to  his 
stock  the  shape  and  qualities  he  desired.  So  far  as 
we  breed  domestic  animals  in  this  country,  we  must  ex- 
tend  our  views  beyond  beef  and  mutton — and  wiLh  the 
former  combine  milk^  buiter  and  cheese^  and  a  fitness  for 
labor^  and  together  with  mutton^  aim  at  the  greatest, 
quantity  of  the  most  useful  wool. 

It  is  best  to  begin  with  a  considerable  variety  of  ani- 
mals ;  that  the  farmer,  by  observing  the  profit  he  gets 
from  each  kind,  may  afterwards  vary,  as  he  finds  to  be 
best.  Where  farms  contain  a  large  proportion  of  high 
and  dry  pasture  grounds,  the  greater  quantity  of  sheep 
should  be  kept.  Where  low  meadow  abounds,  the  kind 
of  stock  should  be  increased,  which  will  do  best  on 
coarse  water-grasses  ;  which  is  neat-cattle  that  are  young 
and  growing.  But  if  a  farm  yield  a  plenty  of  good 
sweet  grass,  it  is  more  suitable  for  a  dairy  farm.  But 
let  a  farm  be  what  it  will,  it  should  never  be  over  stocked. 
The  number  of  cattle  should  not  be  greater  than  the  re.. 
14* 


154  LIVE  STOCK. 

sources  of  food  will  keep  in  good  plight.  If  a  poor  farm 
be  unprofitable,  so  are  poor  cattle.  The  half  of  any 
given  number  of  animals,  where  they  are  well  kept, 
will  always  be  found  to  yield  as  much  clear  profit,  as 
the  whole  when  kept  in  poor  condition. 

It  is  an  object  of  very  great  consequence  to  every 
husbandman,  to  expend,  in  the  most  economical  and  ad- 
vantageous manner,  the  vegetable  produce  allotted  for 
the  maintenance  of  his  stock.  Foddering  should  not  be 
commenced  till  it  is  really  necessary  ;  for  when  the  cat- 
tle have  been  taught  to  expect  it,  they  will  neglect  their 
other  feeding.  Fodder  at  first  in  the  morning,  when  the 
frost  is  on  the  ground.  Neat  cattle  should  not  yet  be 
housed ;  but  horses  should.  In  cold  rains  they  should, 
however,  be  sheltered,  as  these  are  more  hurtful  than 
cold  dry  weather.  The  meanest  fodder  should  be  re- 
served for  the  most  severe  weather.  The  early  part  of 
winter  is  the  most  improper  time  to  pinch  cattle.  They 
©ught  not  to  be  kept  constantly  on  salted  fodder.  A 
change  of  food,  sometimes  salt,  and  sometimes  fresh,  is 
best.  Too  much  fodder  should  never  be  laid  beibre 
cattle  at  once  :  Rather  let  them  have  a  little  at  a  time, 
and  be  fed  the  oftener.  By  constantly  breathing  on  their 
tood,  it  becomes  less  palatable  ;  and  for  this  reason  they 
will  eat  that  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  open  air 
and  winds,  after  they  have  rejected  it  in  the  stable. 
Exactness  in  regard  to  time  and  quantity,  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance.  Cattle  which  run  out  during  winter 
should  have  a  shelter,  and  a  rack  under  it  to  hold  their 
fodder.  This  not  only  saves  them  from  much  suffering, 
but  much  dung  is  preserved  by  the  shelter.  If  expos- 
ed to  cold,  attended  with  rain,  snow  or  sleet,  their 
wretchedness  claims  compassion  :  and  the  owner  feeling 
for  the  beasts  committed  to  his  care,  should  resolutely 
practice  giving  them  due  shelter  and  attention.  Much 
chaff  and  straw,  that  is  often  thrown  away,  may,  with  a 
little  pains  be  made  useful  for  stock,  by  mixing  some- 
thing green  with  it,  and  sprinkling  a  little  salt  through- 
out the  whole.  Straw  ought  to  be  laid  away  as  soon  as 
threshed,  and  brine  sprinkled  over  each  layer,  so  as  to 
give  a  degree  of  saltness  to  the  whole  mass,  and  occa 
sionally  fed  out  to  all  the  neat-cattle.  A  great  saving 
can  be  made  by  cutting  straw.     One  of  the  most  econo- 


LIVE  STOCK.  155 

mical  machines  can  be  had  for  ^3  or  $4.  It  i3  consider- 
ed an  excellent  practice  to  keep  salt  undev-  cover,  in 
such  a  !3*ituation  that  cattle  or  sheep  may  have  recourse  to 
it  at  pleasure.  A  liberal  use  of  salt  is  proper  at  all  limes, 
except,  perhaps,  in  the  coldest  weather^  when  it  may 
cause  them  to  drink  too  much  cold  water.  From  trials 
in  England  it  has  been  found,  that  the  following  quanti- 
ties may  at  ail  times  be  administered  in  that  country  with 
perfect  safety.  To  neat-cattle,  four  ounces  a  day,  mix- 
ed up  with  steamed  chaff,  or  other  moistened  food  ; 
one  half  to  be  given  in  the  morning  and  the  other  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  day.  To  horses  four  ounces  a  day,  as 
aforesaid.  To  young  heifers  two  ounces  per  day,  at 
twice  as  aforesaid.  To  calves  one  ounce  per  day,  di- 
vided into  two  portions.  To  sheep,  two  ounces  per 
head,  per  week.  It  is  believed  by  many,  that  salt  is  a 
cure  forbotts  in  horses  ;  and  that  the  wool  is  materially 
improved  of  such  sheep  as  have  a  suitable  qu^^mtity. 
Mixing  salt  with  water  and  fine  clay  in  a  mass  lor  crea- 
tures to  lick,  is  better  than  to  give  it  to  them  alone. 

Animals  intended  for  the  butcher,  should  be  kept  ia  a 
state  of  regular  improvement.  They  ought  never  to 
be  allowed  to  lose  flesh,  in  the  hopes  of  afterwards  re- 
storing it  by  better  feeding.  Great  care  should  be  tak- 
en, not  to  overstock  pasture.  The  food,  whatever  it 
may  be,  should  not  be  too  suddenly  changed.  They  re- 
quire a  progression  from  coarser  to  better  food,  as  they 
grow  m.ore  in  flesh,  otherwise,  when  half  fat  they  will 
go  back,  and  are  with  dithculty  again  raised. 

Among  the  most  useful  improvements  of  modern  hus- 
bandry may  be  numbered  the  practice  of  steaming  or 
boiling  food  for  domestic  animals.  A  steam  boiler  is  an 
implement  that  no  farmer  should  be  without,  as  pota- 
toes particularly,  are  nearly  doubled  in  value,  when 
boiled  turnips  and  other  roots,  and  pumpkms,  are  also 
much  improved,  as  food  for  cattle,  by  a  similar  process. 
Clover  hay,  corn  tops,  blades  and  husks,  when  steamed, 
have  been  found  greatly  to  improve  the  quantity  of  milk 
and  the  condition  of  animals  in  the  winter  season. — 
Boiled  clover-hay  is  found  very  good  for  keeping  swine 
in  the  winter.  We  believe  this  to  be  well  worthy  at- 
tention, by  having  a  box  to  hold  the  hay,  &c.  sufficiently 
large   for    the  purpose.     A   steam-boiler   i»    commonly 


15S  LIVE   STOCK. 

made  by  setting  a  kettle,  holding  twelve  gallons  or  more. 
in  a  furnace,  of  brick  or    stone,   and  over    this  a  hogs- 
head, with  one  head  taken  out,  and  the  other  bored  full 
of  holes,  is  set  so  close  that  the    steam    of  the    kettle, 
when  boiling,    can    only   rise    through    the    holes,   and 
thence  ascend  among   the    articles  to   be   boiled  in    the 
hogshead,  and  pass  off  at  the  top.     In  this  way  a  hogs- 
head full  of  potatoes  will  be  nearly  as  soon    boiled,    as 
a  small  part  of  them  only  could  have  been,   if  placed  in 
the  kettle  underneath.     As  the  kettle  must  be  so  closed 
as  to    prevent   any    steam  passing  off,  but  through  the 
bottom  of  the  hogshead  or  vat,    a  pipe  or  tube  must  be 
set  in  one  side,  through  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  funnel, 
the  water  is  to  be  poured  into  the  kettle,  as  often  as  oc- 
casion may  require.     When  poured   in  the  tube  is  to  be 
stopped  with  a  plug.     Grain  of  all  kinds  may  be  steam- 
boiled  to   great  advantage,  for  feeding    and    fatting  cat- 
tle ;  but,  in  that  case,   it  is  requisite  to  have  the  bottom 
of  the  hogshead  covered    with   a  cloth,  to  prevent  the 
grain  running  down  through  the  holes.     It  was  the  opin- 
ion of  a  late  excellent  writer  in  this  country,  that  steam 
boiling   food,   for  feeding  or    fatting  all    sorts  of  cattle, 
generally  increases   the  value  of  the  food,   as    much  as 
forty  or  i\fty  per  cent. 

Mr.  Davy^  from  analysis,  has  found,  that  the  best 
wheat  contains  ninety-five  parts  in  one  hundred  of  nutri- 
tive matter  ;  good  barley,  ninty-two  ;  rye,  seventy-nine  ; 
oats,  seventy-four;  pcis,  and  beans,  fifty-seven;  pota- 
toes, twenty-five ;  beets,  and  mangle  wurtzel,  fourteen  ; 
carrots  and  parsnips,  ten  ;  common  turnips,  four;  ruta 
baga,  six  ;  cabbages,  seven ;  clover,  four ;  other  grasses, 
from  two  to  five.  Thus  it  would  seem,  that  as  much 
nourishment  is  to  be  derived  from  one  bushel  of  wheat, 
as  from  upwards  of  twenty  bushels  of  turnips.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  case.  What  is  called  the  stimulus 
produced  by  distention  must  be  taken  into  the  account,  in 
forming  a  proper  estimate  of  the  effects  produced  in 
supporting  life,  by  any  kind  of  food ;  and  it  is  on  this 
account  that,  perhaps,  fourteen  bushels  of  turnips,  par- 
ticularly when  boiled,  would  sustain  life  as  long,  or  fat- 
ten as  much,  as  one  bushel  ot'  wheat. 

The  method  of  littering  all  kinds  of  stock,  cannot  be 
too  highly  recommended  ;  it  not  only  renders  the  animals 


LIVE    STOCK.  157 

SO  much  more  warm  and  comfortable,  as  to  lessen  the 
expense  of  food,  but  it  greatly  increases  the  quantity  of 
manure.  The  author  of  the  Farmer''s  Manual^  suppo- 
ses, that  each  creature  properly  stabled  ^nd  littered, 
with  coarse  hay,  straw,  &c.  furnishes  the  means  of  sav- 
ing nearly  the  whole  expense  of  wintering,  in  the  next 
year's  tillage. 

Too  little  attention  is  paid  in  this  country  to  the  dis- 
eases of  domestic  animals.  We  are  bound  by  interest 
and  by  motives  of  humanity  to  perform  this  reasonable 
service.  In  consequence  of  the  dominion  man  holdfs 
over  them,  they  acquire  new  and  violent  diseases,  and 
are  made  subject  to  casualties,  that  do  not  take  place  ia 
those  beasts  which  roam  the  forest ;  they  live  only  for 
our  benetit ;  they  cost  us  notliing  in  wages  or  clothing ; 
•for  all  their  services  they  require  only  at  our  hands,  food 
and  shelter,  and  these  of  the  cheapest  and  coarsest  kind. 
Who  can  reflect  upon  the  services  of  the  noble  horse, 
the  labour  of  the  ox,  the  utility  of  the  cow,  the  cloath- 
ing  of  the  sheep  ;  and  not  acknowledge  that  we  are 
vastly  their  debtors,  and  that  gratitude  as  well  as  inter- 
est should  move  us  to  their  relief,  in  all  their  maladies. 
By  making  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  diseases  of  our 
domestic  animals,  we  prevent  imposition,  and  rescue 
them  from  the  hands  of  the  ignorant  pretender,  who, 
by  his  improper  and  untimely  remedies,  disturbs  the  ef- 
forts of  nature,  and  increases  the  difficulty  he  would 
wish  to  remove.  Every  grazier,  therefore,  ought  to  be 
in  possession  of  some  approved  book  on  the  diseases  of 
live  stock. 

On  the  proper  selection  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and 
swine,  and  their  management,  the  profits  of  a  farm  must 
at  all  times  materially  depend.  If  we  have  those  of 
an  unproductive  kind  ;  if  too  many  or  too  few — if  fed 
without  judgment,  or  fattened  at  too  great  an  expense, 
they  will  deprive  us  ot  that  recompense  which  a  farmer 
ought  to  obtain.  To  close  our  remarks  we  would  re- 
commend to  farmers  not  to  keep  more  of  any  species  of 
animals,  than  they  can  keep  well.  It  is  much  more 
agreeable  to  see  a  small  stock  in  fine  order,  than  to  see 
a  large  stock  of  poor  meagre  looking  animals,  and  it  is 
far  more  profitable. 


-15S  HORSE*. 

HORSES. 

The  marks  of  a  good  horse  are,  a  high  neck,  full 
breast,  a  lively  eye,  a  strong  back,  stiff  dock,  full  but- 
tocks, ribs  reaching  near  to  the  hips,  good  hoofs,  and  a 
good  gait.  The  size  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
work  in  which  he  is  chiefly  to  be  employed. 

Mares  should  not  breed  till  after  they  are  four  years 
old.  They  should  be  free  from  distempers,  and  possess 
those  qualities  desirable  in  a  horse.  When  with  foal 
they  should  be  housed  pretty  early  in  the  fail,  and  be 
well  kept  till  foahng,  wiiich  should  be  about  the  last  of 
May.  (They  go  with  young  about  eleven  months.) 
They  should  not  be  ridden  swiftly,  nor  put  to  drawing 
or  carrying  burdens,  ibr  one  or  two  months  before  that 
time. 

Colts  should  be  weaned  the  beginning  of  foddering 
time  ;  and  then  they  ought  to  be  put  in  a  stable  by 
themselves,  kept  on  good  hay,  and  fed  regularly  twice  a 
day  during  winter,  with  oats,  or  some  other  nourishing 
food.  The  next  summer  they  ought  to  have  good  pas- 
ture. If  colts,  as  well  as  other  young  animals,  are  not 
well  kept  the  first  winter,  they  are  very  apt  to  get 
stunted  ;  and  of  this  they  never  wholly  recover. 

In  breaking  a  horse  gentle  means  are  best.  First  let 
a  young  horse  be  tamed  by  leading  with  a  bridle;  then 
saddle  him,  and  lead  him  about  smartly  so  as  to  make 
him  trot;  then  fasten  a  small  weight  on  the  saddle,  add- 
ing more  and  more  till  he  carry  the  full  weight  of  a  man. 
If  he  be  very  fractious,  lead  him  with  another  horse. 
After  he  has  been  broke  to  leading  well,  and  carrying 
burdens,  let  him  be  gently  mounted,  while  some  person 
hold  him,  and  rode  about  in  a  ploughed  field,  with  anoth- 
er horse  before  him,  if  necessary,  until  he  learns  to  go 
by  himself  In  teaching  a  young  horse  to  draw,  the 
same  gentleness  should  be  used  ;  first  putting  him  with 
a  gentle  horse  that  i«  true  to  draw ;  then  loading  him 
lightly,  and  gradually  heavier,  till  he  has  learned,  like 
his  fellow,  to  exert  his  utmost  strength. 

The  best  method  of  keeping  working  horses  in  the 
summer  is  to  soil  them.  They  should  have  a  yard  ad- 
joining the  stable,  in  which  they  may  run  at  large  at 
times.  This  practice  is  a  great  saving  of  pasture  land  ; 
the  horses  will  keep  much  better,  and  they  are  always  at 


iJORSKS.  1,59 

Rand  for  service.  This  management  prevents  them 
from  watering,  or  slavering  at  the  mouth,  which  is  often 
very  injurious. 

The  stable  should  be  so  well  enclosed  as  to  defend 
them  from  winds  and  storms  in  winter ;  and  at  the  same 
time  not  so  warm  as  to  injure  them  when  exposed  to 
the  weather.  It  should  have  a  floor  descending  back 
for  the  stalls  to  run  off;  which  ought  to  be  kept  clean 
and  well  littered.  In  the  summer  time,  it  is  thought 
better  for  them  to  stand  upon  turf  There  should  be 
sufficient  room  in  the  stalls  for  horses  to  turn  their 
heads  to  every  part  of  their  bodies,  and  to  raise  them 
as  high  as  they  please.  The  rack  should  be  pvirpendi- 
cular  and  not  too  high.  Some  prefer  putting  the  hay 
into  a  very  large  manger  or  trough ;  and  what  is  left 
by  horses,  other  cattle  will  eat  readiiy.  Crowding  hor- 
ses together  in  stables  that  are  not  sufficiently  aired,  is 
so  injurious,  that  it  has  been  oi>served  in  Boston  that 
most  horses  from  the  country  become  diseased  the  tirst 
week,  and  frequently  in  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours 
after  they  are  placed  in  the  stables  of  that  city. 

Clover  and  Herd's  grass  together  are  the  best  grasses 
for  horses.  When  grain  is  given  them,  let  it  be  either 
ground,  or  boiled.  Raw  potatoes  or  carrots,  washed 
clean,  though  far  inferior  to  boiled  roots,  will  keep 
them  in  good  order.  Pumpkins  will  fatten  them.  Chop- 
ed  straw  (^particularly  oat  straw)  mixed  with  meal  and 
water,  witn  a  moderate  proportion  of  hay,  will  keep 
horses  that  are  not  at  work  in  excellent  order.  This 
method  is  considered  cheaper  and  better  than  feeding 
them  on  hay  only.  If  no  kind  of  fresh  food  can  be  fur- 
nished for  the  horse  to  eat  with  his  dry  hay,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  place  a  basket  of  snow  near  him  to  supply 
the  waste  of  saliva  which  is  absorbed  by  the  hay  while 
eating. 

To  avoid  the  catalogue  of  disorders  to  which  this  use- 
ful animal  is  exposed,  regular  treatment  seems  to  be  the 
surest  course.  The  kind  of  treatment  which  deserves 
this  character  is,  never  to  heat  nor  fatigue  them  more 
than  is  necessary ;  and  if  they  are  at  any  time  over- 
heated and  tatigued,  to  cool  them  in  a  gradual  manner, 
rubbing  them  well  down,  and  covering  them,  so  that 
perspiration  may  not  be  obstructed,  and    administering 


160  NEAT    CATTIE. 

some  warm  boiled  food,  so  that  the  intestines  may  be 
kept  open,  and  the  consequent  disorders  avoided.  They 
should  at  all  times  be  kept  clean,  and  their  skin  curried 
and  brushed,  but  not  too  severely. 

When  a  horse  is  on  a  long-  journey,  he  should  be  fed 
with  hay  and  provender,  and  not  turned  out  to  grass  at 
evening,  ibr  his  joints  to  be  stiffened  by  the  dampness 
and  cold  of  the  night,  after  the  warm  and  severe  exer- 
cises of  the  day.  To  prepare  him  for  a  journey,  he 
ought  to  be  previously  kept  to  hay,  with  provender,  and 
have  moderate  daily  exercise,  in  order  that  his  fat  may 
become  more  soiirl,  and  of  course  his  body  better  inu- 
red to  fatigue.  He  ought  also  to  be  shod  some  days  be- 
fore in  order  that  the  shoes  may  become  easy  to  his  feet. 
If  the  skin  should  be  rubbed  off  his  back,  sprinkle  over 
the  raw  flesh  a  little  dry  whitelead,  which  will  soon 
heal  the  sore. 


NEAT     CATTLE. 

The  marks  of  a  good  Bull  are,  a  quick  countenance, 
forehead  large  and  curled,  eyes  black  and  large,  horns 
large,  straight  and  black,  neck  fleshy,  belly  long  and 
large,  hair  smooth  like  velvet,  breast  big,  back  straight 
and  flat,  buttocks  square,  thighs  round,  legs  straight,  and 
joints  short. 

The  principle  distinguishing  marks  of  a  good  cow  are 
said  to  be  these  :  wide  horns,  a  thin  head  and  neck,  dew 
lap  large,  full  breast,  broad  back,  large  deep  belly  ;  the 
udder  capacious  but  not  too  fleshy  ;  the  milch  veins  pro- 
minent, and  the  bag  tending  far  behind  ;  teats  long  and 
large  ;  buttocks  broad  and  fleshy  ,•  tail  long,  pliable,  and 
small  in  proportion  the  size  of  the  carcass,  and  the 
joints  short.  To  these  outward  marks  may  be  added  a 
gentle  disposition,  a  temper  free  from  any  vicious  tricks, 
and  perfectly  manageable  on  every  occasion  ;  a  vora- 
cious and  indiscriminate  eater  of  all  foods,  and  industri- 
ous whilst  on  a  thin  pasture,  seldom  laying  down. 

Early  calves  are  best  for  raising,  as  they  will  endure 
the  first  winter  better ;  and,  if  heifers,  will  generally 
have  calves  a  year  sooner  than  those  brought  forth  late,- 
April  may  be  ns  suitable  a  time  as  any  if  the  calves  are 
to  be  reared ;  if  not  perhaps  May  is  better.  The  most 
promising  calves  should  be  selected  for  rearing,  for  the 


NEAT    CATTLE.  161 

uses  intended,  and  the  rest  fatted  and  killed.  Those  in- 
tended to  be  killed  should  be  taken  from  the  cow  the 
next  day  after  they  are  calved  ;  and  let  them  have  only 
two  teats  of  the  cow  to  suck  the  first  week,  three  du- 
ring the  second,  and  all  during  the  third  and  fourth ; 
in  this  way  they  will  be  fatter  in  the  end,  than  if  they 
had  all  at  first.  Feeding  calves  three  times  a  day  is 
considered  much  better  than  onl}  twice;  but,  whether 
fed  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  the  times  of  feeding  should 
be  regular,  and  as  nearly  equi-distant  as  possible.  It  is 
generally  recommended  to  place  a  lump  of  chalk  conve- 
nient for  the  calf  to  lick  at.  Fresh  litter  should  be  con- 
stantly provided  for  them  to  lie  on,  and  particular  at- 
tention paid  to  their  cleanliness.  The  calves  intended 
to  be  reared  may  go  with  the  cows  the  first  three  or 
four  days.  They  should  have  milk,  more  or  less,  for 
about  tw^elve  weeks.  They  may  be  fed  with  skimmed 
miik,  or  water  porridge,  after  the  first  fortnight ;  or  their 
milk  may  be  mixed  with  meal  and  water.  After  a  calf 
has  sucked,  or  drunk  milk,  for  a  month,  take  some  of 
the  freshest  and  sweetest  hay,  and  puj;  little  wisps  of  it 
into  cleft  sticks,  and  he  will  soon  learn  to  eat.  If  skim 
miik  is  given  to  calves,  it  should  be  boiled,  and  then 
cooled  to  the  temperature  of  that  from  the  cow.  It  is 
better  boiled  than  when  warmed  only.  If  given  too  cold 
it  will  cause  the  ealf  to  purge.  If  this  is  the  case,  put 
two  or  three  spoonfuls  of  runnit  in  the  milk,  and  it  will 
stop  the  looseness.  If  the  calf  is  bound,  pork  broth  is 
said  to  be  a  good  thing  to  put  into  the  milk.  Mr.  Budd, 
of  Mass.  directs  to  feed  ihe  calves  when  three  days  old 
with  gruel,  composed  of  one  third  barley  and  two  thirds 
oats,  each  ground  fine,  and  the  mixture  sifted.  A  quart 
of  this  gruel  is  to  be  given  to  each  calf,  morning  and 
evening.  The  gruel  is  made  by  taking  one  quart  of  the 
flour,  and  twelve  of  water,  and  boiling  them  together 
for  half  an  hour,  and  is  to  be  given  while  milk-warm. 
If  calves  are  put  into  pasture,  it  should  be  such  as  is 
dry  and  sweet.  White  and  red  clover  is  best.  There 
should  be  no  water  in  the  pasture  but  sufficient  shade. 
When  the  dews  fail,  a  little  nourishing  drink  should  be 
given  th'^m  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  if  the  weather  is 
warm.  During  the  first  winter  they  should  be  kept  in 
a  comfortable  place,  and  have  plenty  of  good  fodder  and 
15 


liit  NEAT    CATTLE. 

a  little  Indian  meal,  or  other  nourishing  food  ;  and  they 
should  have  shelter  earlier  than  larger  cattle.  The  best 
time  for  castrating  calves  is  at  tii'teen  or  twenty  days 
old. 

Young  steers  intended  for  labor,  should  be  early  yok- 
ed, and  worked  moderately  at  iirst  with  old  oxen.  When 
oxen  are  worked  in  wet  weather,  let  that  part  of  the 
yoke  which  rubs  against  the  breast  and  neck  be  rubbed 
with  tallow,  to  prevent  soreness. 

The  signs  of  a  good  ox,  are,  thick,  soft,  smooth,  short 
hair ;  short  thick  head ;  glossy  smooth  horns  ;  large 
shaggy  ears  ;  wide  forehead  ;  full  black  eyes  ;  wide  nos- 
trils ;  black  lips  ;  thick  fleshy  neck  ;  large  shoulders  ; 
hroad  veins ;  large  belly ;  thick  rump  and  thighs ; 
straight  back ;  long  tail,  well  covered  with  hair ;  and 
short  broad  hoofs.  The  best  colors  are  brown,  dark-red, 
and  brindled.  When  an  ox  has  completed  his  eighth 
A'ear  he  should  be  fattened. 

Cows  should  not  be  milked  during  two  months  pre- 
vious to  calving  ;  and  for  some  weeks  before  this  event 
should  receive  particular  attention.  The  day  and  night 
after  a  cow  has  calved,  she  should  be  kept  housed,  and 
her  drink  should  be  luke-warm.  Let  her  not  be  expos- 
sed  for  some  time  after  to  the  dampness  of  the  night. 
Cows  should  at  all  times  be  kept  in  high  health  and  good 
condition :  for  if  they  are  suffered  to  fall  in  flesh  during 
the  winter,  it  will  be  impossible  to  expect  an  abundant 
supply  of  milk  by  bringing  them  into  high  condition  in 
the  summer.  The  happiest  consequences  will  ensue, 
both  in  regard  to  milk  and  improvement  of  the  cows  by 
currying  them  well.  Pure  water  also  is  a  most  essential 
article  to  them.  It  has  been  ascertained,  that  if  water 
is  at  command,  cattle  will  drink  of  it  eight  times  a  day  : 
hence  it  is  evident,  that  they  cannot  get  enough,  if  only 
driven  twice  a  day  to  an  adjoining  stream  or  pond. 

The  common  cattle  stalls  of  our  country  are  so  ill 
contrived,  that  the  cattle  lie  d"wn  in  their  own  dung. 
This  dries  and  forms  a  thick  coat  on  their  hind  quarters, 
from  which  they  are  not  relieved  till  they  shed  their 
hair  in  the  spring.  They  are  thus  rendered  uncomforU 
able.  To  be  uncomfortable  is  to  suffer  some  degree  of 
pcdn ;  and  no  one  will  suppose  that  animals  in  pain  can 
thrive  or  preserve  their  plight,  with  the  same  food,  equal- 


NEAT    CATTLE.  163 

ly  with  others  perfectly  at  ease.  Even  hog-s,  though 
prone  to  wallow  in  the  mire  in  warm  weather,  are  al- 
ways pleased  with  a  dry  bed,  and  thrive  best  when  kept 
clean. 

Oil-cakes^  are  of  great  use,  for  feeding  cows  before 
calving.  Flax-seed  broth,  or  jelly,  is  much  recommend- 
ed for  fatting.  It  is  made  by  putting  about  a  quart  of 
flaxseed  to  seven  of  water,  and  then  let  stand  about 
forty-eight  hours;  after  vvhich  il  is  to  be  boiled  gently 
for  two  hours,  stirring  it  trequently  to  prevent  its  burn- 
ing. When  cool,  it  is  to  be  mixed  with  meal,  bran,  or 
cut-straw,  and  fed  out  at  the  rate  of  about  two  quarts  a 
day  to  each  beast,  and  it  is  said  to  make  a  great  saving 
in  the  article  of  food.  It  is  also  uselul  for  fattening 
calves. 

The  more  cattle  can  be  made  to  eat  with  an  appetite, 
the  sooner  they  grow  fat.  It  is  bad  economy  to  spare 
food  in  this  case  :  a  certain  quantity  daily  is  requisite  (o 
preserve  a  beast  from  falling  awa}'^ ;  and  an  addition  is 
necessary  to  put  fat  on  him.  Therefore  the  sooner  he 
is  fatted,  the  greater  proportion  of  what  is  necessary  for 
bare  maintenance,  is  saved. 

Cattle  ought  not  to  be  turned  to  pasture  in  the  spring, 
until  there  is  a  good  bite  of  grass.  x\nd  if  it  consists  of 
the  artiiicial  grasses,  care  must  be  used  to  prevent  them 
from  receiving  injury.  The  milch-cows  and  fatting  cat- 
tle should  have  the  best  or  first  feeding  of  each  pasture 
lot. 

The  cow  is  generally  in  her  prime  at  five  years  old, 
and  will  continue  in  a  good  milking  state  till  ten  years 
of  age  or  upwards.  The  time  of  milking  ought  to  be 
regular,  and  as  nearly  equi-distant  as  possible.  Where 
the  feeding  is  full,  milking  three  times  a  day  in  summer, 
will  increase  the  milk  nearly  one  third.  Omitting  to 
milk  regularly  and  clean,  tends  very  much  to  dry  them 
up.  The  milk  last  taken  from  a  cow  has  been  found  to 
produce  a  much  larger  proportion  of  butter  than  the 
iirst. 

It  is  considered  best  to  select  cows  from  the  stock 
raised  on  the  farm  ;  if  brought  from  other  farms  it  is 
frequently  two  years  before  they  will  give  the  full  quan- 
tity of  milk.  In  the  improvement  of  the  breed  of  cat- 
tle,   select    those   cow*   vvhich    yield    the  most  of  such 


164  SHEEP. 

cream  as  makes  the  best  butter  :  for  there  is  a  consider- 
able diiTerence  in  the  quuiii^'  of  milk,  from  cows  fed  in 
the  same  manner. 


SHEEP. 

Among  the  Tarions  animals  given  by  the  benevolent^ 
])and  of  Providence  for  the  beneiit  of  mankind,  sheep  is 
one  of  the  most  useful.  They  multiply  fast;  they  are 
subject  to  but  few  diseases  in  this  country  ;  and  they  not 
only  supply  us  with  food  and  clothing,  but  also  afford 
employment  to  many  persons,  in  the  various  branches 
of  woolen  manufacture. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  our  country  should  be  stock- 
ed with  sheep  of  various  kinds,  in  order  to  supply  it- 
self with  the  various  sorts,  of  clothes  which  are  neces- 
sar}'  in  different  uses.  Many  questions  which  were  once 
problematical,  observes  Mr.  Lowell^  are  now  settled  in 
favour  of  the  merino. — It  was  doubted  whether  it  would 
inland  oar  climate  : — It  does  perfectly. — Whether  its  wool 
would  not  degenerate  : — It  rather  improves. — Whether 
its  meat  won  id  be  good  for  the  table  ?  It  is  as  fine  at 
least  as  any  mutton  we  have.  Whether  the  wool  could 
be  exported  to  England  and  sell  there  at  a  fair  price  ? 
It  has  been  done,  and  met  such  a  sale  as  would  yield  a 
much  greater  profit  on  merino  sheep  than  on  the  com- 
mon sheep. 

The  farmer  should  carefully  examine  the  nature  of 
his  land  ;  and  having  attentively  weighed  its  relative 
degrees  of  fertility,  and  his  various  sources  for  suppl}'- 
ing  food,  he  m-^y  then  proceed  to  purchase  that  breed, 
which,  after  mature  consideration,  he  has  reason  to  be- 
lieve is  best  calculated  for  him.  The  difference  of  land, 
v/hence  the  sheep  are  to  be  purchased,  ought  to  be  at- 
tentively weighed ;  for  with  sheep,  as  with  cattle  stock, 
if  any  breed  be  brought  from  a  rich  to  an  inferior  soil, 
it  must  necessarily  decrease  in  value  and  condition.  It 
may  be  found  equally  true,  that  difl'erent  soils  are  best 
suited  to  different  breeds  of  sheep  ;  and  that  the  soil  of- 
ten serves  eventually  to  produce  a  difference  in  sheep. 

That  our  sheep  may  be  profitably  managed,  none 
should  be  kept  for  breeders  that  have  not  good  fleeces. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Deane  that  lambs  should  not 
come  till  about  the  20th  of  April,  when  the  grass  begins 


SHEEP.  165 

to  start.  The  ewes  should  therefore  be  kept  from  the 
ram  till  the  20th  of  November.  For  a  few  weeks  before, 
and  for  a  considerable  time  after  yearning,  they  should 
have  plenty  of  juicy  food  :  For  the  want  of  milk  is  the  prin- 
cipal cause  of  the  loss  of  so  many  lambs.  Sheep  should 
have  hay  of  the  liest  quality  during  winter.  Red  clover 
that  has  been  salted  in  the  mow  is  esteemed  the  best. 
If  sheep  are  fed  daily  upon  potatoes,  carrots,  turnips, 
&c.  no  article  of  stock  will  repay  with  greater  protit ; 
the  quantity  of  wool  will  be  greater,  and  quality  finer  ; 
they  will  be  fiee  from  ticks,  unless  kept  in  too  warm  a 
covering,  and  too  man}^  in  a  fold ;  they  will  not  shed 
their  wool,  and  seldom  lose  their  lambsc  When  sheep 
are  badly  kept  they  take  colds,  and  discharge  a  mucus 
from  the  nose.  Good  feeding,  together  with  seme  pine 
boughs  given  them  occasionally,  will  cure  this  complaint. 
If  pine  boughs  cannot  be  had,  spread  some  tar  over  a 
board,  and  over  this  spread  some  salt,  which  will  induce 
the  sheep  to  lick  up  all  the  tar,  and  this  will  efiect  a 
cure.  The  yard  and  shelter  should  be  spacious ;  the 
shelter  close  over-head,  but  open  to  the  south,  and  it 
should  have  some  small  apartments  for  the  ewes  at 
yearning  time.  The  different  appartments  must  be  kept 
well  littered. 

If  lambs  are  weak,  it  is  necessary  to  give  them,  the 
first  day  or  two,  a  small  quantity  of  cow's  milk,  warm, 
three  or  four  times  in  the  day  ;  if  it  is  cold  weather, 
the  cup  containing  the  milk  should  stand  in  another  ves- 
sel, that  is  partly  filled  with  warm  water.  Should  the 
lamb  be  chilled,  rub  his  legs  with  tow,  and  let  a  warm 
cloth  be  wrapped  round  it.  But  if  corn,  barley,  oats,  or 
white  beans,  are  given  to  she.ep,  during  the  winter,  in 
small  quantity,  the  ewes  will  have  plenty  of  milk,  the 
lambs  will  be  strong,  and  the  trouble  of  nursing  saved. 

Water  is  not  necessary  for  sheep  during  the  season 
of  pasture  ;  as  they  will  feed  while  the  dew  is  on  ;  but 
in  winter  they  should  have  free  access  to  it,  although 
they  can  do  many  days  without  it.  They  thrive  better 
if  changed  frequently  from  one  pasture  to  another,  if 
of  equal  goodness. 

*    The  weaning  of  lambs,  before   the    time    when   they 
naturally  wean  themselves,  is  believed   to   be    by    n'*, 
means  advisable,  unless  the  ewes  are  to  be    turned    off 
*1S 


16G  -     SHEEP. 

for  fatting*.  In  this  case,  care  miist.be  taken  to  milk 
the  ewes  every  day  or  two,  for  the  first  week,  until 
the  milk  dries  up. 

In  washing  sheep,  to  prevent  danger  from  exposure, 
sink  a  tub  or  barrel  for  the  person  to  stand  in.  The 
water  must  be  warm  as  can  be  had,  and  perfectly  clean. 
It  is  necessary  to  keep  sheep,  some  days  previous  to 
shearing,  in  a  clean  pasture,  that  their  wool  may  im- 
bibe some  of  the  oil  which  is  lost  by  washing,  which 
will  render  the  shearing  more  easy,  and  require  less  oil 
afterwards.  If  any  are  cut  in  shearing,  the  wounds 
should  be  smeared  with  a  mixture  of  tar,  fresh  butter, 
and  sulphur.  At  shearmg  but  few  should  be  brought 
together  at  a  time,  and  they  should  be  penned  in  the 
open  air.  After  shearing,  they  require  shade  during 
the  heat  of  the  day,  free  acccess  to  their  shelter  during 
rains  and  cold  nights,  and  plenty  of  salt.  At  shearing 
time,  the  lambs  should  be  docked,  castrated  and  mark- 
ed ;  and  all  old  and  broken-mouthed  sheep,  and  all  that 
do  not  possess  good  qualities  should  be  marked,  in  order 
to  be  put  in  good  pasture  and  fatted.  To  destroy  ticks 
on  sheep,  part  the  wool  along  the  back,  and  down 
each  side  of  the  neck,  and  sprinkle  snuff  thin  :  it  will 
kill  the  ticks  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  days.  This 
operation  ought  to  be  repeated  in  ten  or  twelve  days, 
to  kill  those  newly  hatched.  This  operation  performed 
on  the  lambs  after  the  old  sheep  are  shorn,  will  expel 
the  vermin  from  the  flock. 

The  wool  ot  yearhng  sheep  should  be  kept  by  itself; 
as  its  difference  of  texture  will  cause  cloth  to  shrink  un- 
equally if  mixed  with  other  wool.  The  other  fleeces 
may  be  sorted,  by  making  separate  parcels  of  the  thighs, 
belly,  back,  and  sides.  Mr.  Hayden  of  Massachusetts, 
recommends  the  following  management  for  wool  that  is 
to  be  sent  to  market.  After  separating  from  the  fleece 
all  tag  locks  and  manure,  wind  up  as  tight  as  possible, 
with  the  skin  side  inward.  After  which,  it. would  be 
well  to  put  it  into  a  clean  dry  apartment  for  a  week  or 
more,  for  the  purpose  of  drying  before  packing.  The 
most  convenient  bags  may  be  made  of  tow  cloth,  from 
7-8  to  4-4  wide,  of  three  breadths  each,  from  two  to 
tw-o  and  a  quarter  in  length.  As  merino  sheep  cannot 
fee  washed  to  much  advantage,  the  wool  must  be  wash- 


SHEEP.  167 

ed  soon  after  shearing",  to  pre  rent   it  from  fermentiog 
and  spoiling  in  hot  weather. 

Ewes  should  not  have  lambs  until  they  are  two  years 
old,  as  it  stints  them  in  their  growth ;  and  they  have  so 
little  milk,  that  their  lambs  either  die,  or  are  always 
small  and  inferior.  A  yearling  sheep  has  at  its  first 
shearing,  two  broad  teeth  before,  besides  its  narrow 
teeth  ;  when  sheared  the  second  dme,  it  has  four ;  the 
third  time  six;  and  the  fourth,  eight.  They  are  then 
said  to  be  full-mouihed.  At  seven  and  eight  years  they 
begin  to  lose  their  front  teeth.  Whenever  this  happens, 
they  should  be  turned  off  to  fat,  as  they  are  then  upon 
the  decline. 

Mr.  Livingston  says,  the  size  of  the  ewes,  more  than 
that  of  the  ram,  governs  the  size  of  their  lambs  ;  that 
the  ewes  of  a  small  race  cannot  bear  large  lambs,  though 
the  ram  be  ever  so  large.  For  this  reason,  the  lambs 
which  are  raised  from  a  merino  ram,  on  our  common 
ewes,  will  be  larger  than  those  raised  from  one  of  our 
common  rams  on  merino  ewes.  But  as  sheep  are  sup- 
posed to  eat  nearly  in  proportion  to  their  size,  those  of 
a  medium  size  are  the  most  profitable.  To  improve  our 
breed  of  sheep,  take  ewes  that  are  at  least  three  years 
old,  as  large  as  can  be  obtained  of  the  sort,  with  the 
belly  large  and  well  covered  with  wool,  chine  and  loin 
broad,  breast  deep,  buttocks  full,  the  eyes  lively,  the 
bag  large,  and  the  teats  long.  They  must  have  fine 
short  thick  wool,  with  the  least  hair  on  the  hinder 
parts.  In  the  choice  of  a  ram,  which  we  will  suppose 
to  be  three-fourths  blooded,  select  one  that  is  of  good 
size,  broad  in  the  chine  and  loins,  deep  in  the  carcase, 
the  back  straight,  the  ribs  well  set  out,  so  as  to  give  room 
for  a  large  belly,  well  covered  with  wool,  the  forehead 
broad,  the  eyes  lively  :  Let  him  also  be  strong,  close- 
knit,  and  active  ;  and  let  his  wool  be  of  good  quality, 
and  as  clear  of  hair  on  the  hinder  parts  as  possible.  The 
product  of  such  a  ram,  with  common  ewes,  would  be 
lambs  nine  twenty-fourth  parts  of  merino  blood  ;  and 
twice  repeating  the  process  on  the  females  of  successive 
products,  would  give  three-fourth  blooded  lambs.  Two 
further  repetitions  from  a  full-blooded  ram,  would  give 
Jambs  possessing  fifteen-sixteenths  of  merino  blood, 
which  is  probably  sufficient.     The  ram,  however,  ought 


16  J  SWINE. 

to  be  changed  at  each  time ;  as  it  is  believed  that  the 
rearing  of  succeeding  stocks,  between  which  there  is 
the  closest  consanguinity,  must  eventually  tend  to 
degenerate  the  breed.  About  forty  ewes  may  be  al- 
lowed to  one  ram.     »See  Livingston'' s  Essay  on  sheep. 

SVvTNE. 

This  species  of  live  stock  may  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  profitable,  while  the  number  kept  on  a  farm  is 
proportioned  to  the  quantity  of  offal  on  the  premises  ; 
especially  as  the  benefit  arising  from  their  dung,  more 
than  counterbalances  the  expense  of  attendance,  and  as 
they  are  the  onl}  kind  of  animals  that  can  be  fed  upon 
those  articles,  that  would  otherwise  go  to  waste  about  a 
farm. 

The  marks  of  a  good  hog  are,  a  moderate  length,  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body  ;  the  nos^  short,  the 
cheek  plump  and  full;  neck  thick  and  short;  quarters 
full ,  carcase  thick  and  full ;  hair  fine  and  thin  ;  with  a 
symmetry  adapted  to  the  breed  to  which  it  belongs. 
Above  all,  it  is  essential  that  it  be  of  a  kindly  disposition 
to  fatten  early.  The  long  nosed  hogs  should  be  avoided. 

The  sow  will  bring  forth  a  stronger  and  better  litter, 
if  kept  from  the  boar  till  a  year  old;  and  he  should  be 
kept  from  sows  till  that  age.  He  should  be  kept  in 
good  condition,  and  not  go  to  more  than  ten  sows  in  a 
year.  The  sow^s  should  also  be  kept  in  good  condition, 
but  not  too  fat.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about  four 
months  ;  they  usually  bring  two  litters  in  a  year ;  the 
most  proper  times  will  be  April  and  early  in  September. 
They  should  be  kept  clean  and  well  littered  ;  but  should 
not  have  too  much  litter  at  the  time  of  piging,  lest  they 
overlay  their  young.  In  eight  or  ten  days  they  should 
be  let  out  of  their  sties  into  the  yard,  for  several  hours 
each  day.  Where  several  sows  are  farrowing,  about 
the  same  time,  they  should  be  kept  in  separate  apart- 
ments. To  prevent  sows  from  eating  their  pigs,  let 
them  have  plenty  of  water.  The  pigs  intended  for 
market,  should  h<i  killed  in  about  three  weeks.  The 
finest  ones  should  be  saved,  and  castrated  and  spayed, 
at  the  age  of  six  weeks.  If  pigs  are  to  be  weaned,  it 
should  be  at  the  age  of  two  months  ;  and  they  should 
have  a  stye  by  themselyes;  be  kept  clean,  well  littered, 


SWINE.  169 

and  have  plenty  of  good  food.  When  three  months  old, 
they  will  do  well  by  turning  them  with  the  hogs  in  the 
clover  field.  The  pasture  in  which  hogs  are  kept, 
should  have  a  supply  of  v/ater. 

In  preference  to  feeding  swine  on  clover  in  the  field, 
during  summer,  Mr.  Young  directs  soiling  them  in  a 
a  yard ;  in  this  case,  sainioiiv,  iucern,  clover,  kc.  can 
he  cut  and  carried  to  them  ;  also,  ail  kinds  of  weeds 
from  the  borders  of  inclosures  ;  the  haulm  of  peas,  beans 
and  potatoes,  fern  or  brakes,  &,c.  and  where  situation 
will  admit,  eel  grass  and  rock  weed,  towards  increasing 
manure,  with  mud  from  the  bottoms  of  ponds,  and  scrap- 
ing from  the  yard,  occasionally  sprinkling  upon  the 
mass,  a  little  quick  lime,  to  favor  the  decomposition. 
Mr.  UHommedien  thinks  the  manure  made  in  this  way 
will  more  than  pay  for  their  keeping. 

Another  good  method,  is  to  have  two  small  enclos- 
ures ;  the  one  to  be  kept  for  feeding  them,  while  the 
other  is  under  tillage  for  a  fresh-  supply  of  clover,  or 
other  good  grass,  when  that  in  the  first  has  failed.  As 
sweet  apples  and  peaches  are  valuable  food  for  them,  let 
a  ie.\w  trees  of»these  be  planted,  in  the  enclosures,  of 
the  best  yearly  bearers  ;  some  being  early  ripe  and  some 
later ;  but  not  so  near  each  other  as  to  injure  the 
ground  for  cultivation. 

Boiled  or  steamed  clover  hay  cut  a  little  sooner  than 
usual,  and  salted  in  the  mow,  will  keep  hogs  during 
winter,  but  to  this  it  is  best  to  add  steamed  potatoes, 
carrots,  Sic.  The  cleaner  they  are  kept,  the  better 
they  will  grow  and  fatten.  They  never  should  be  with- 
out a  good  shelter,  summer  and  winter.  But  how  many 
leave  this  poor  degraded  creature,  exposed  to  the  in- 
clemency of  the  season.  The  hog  appeals  to  all  our 
senses  ;  he  shivers,  his  thin  hairs  are  clotted  and  drip- 
ping, he  utters  loudly  his  complaints  !  But  he  is  not  a 
tavourite  !  he  is  rude  and  dirty  ;  neither  amuses  nor 
renders  an}'-  daily  services  ;  he  is  destined  to  slaughter, 
and  suffers  unpitied  any  natural  evils  that  befall  all  the 
few  days  allotted    o  him  by  the  will  of  his  master. 

The  sows  may  be  allowed  to  breed  till  they  are  six 
years  old,  and  the  boar  until  five.  After  this,  the  form- 
er is  to  be  spayed  and  fattened,  and  the  latter  castrated 
and  fattened  for  bacon. 


1  TO  PASTURES. 

Hogs  for  fatting  should  be  in  a  healthy  state  ;  and,  to 
increase  their  appetite,  let  a  dose  or  two  of  sulphur  be 
given  them  in  their  food.  Change  of  food  is  also  good 
to  increase  their  appetite.  Probably  changes  of  boiled 
roots,  and  of  meal  and  water,  at  intervals,  would  be 
found  best.  All  kinds  of  grain,  ground  to  meal,  and  mix- 
ed v/ith  water,  in  the  proporiion  oi  five  bushels  of  meal 
to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water,  well  stirred  several 
times  each  day,  until  it  has  fermented  and  become  acid, 
is  said  by  Mr.  Youngs  to  be  the  best  food  for  hogs.  It 
should  be  made  in  large  quantities,  as  it  will  require  two 
or  three  weeks  to  ferment.  Mr.  Deane  says,  that  while 
hogs  are  fatting,  little  or  none  of  the  wash  of  the  kitch- 
en should  be  given  them  ;  but  that  their  drink  should 
be  clean  water,  of  which  they  will  drink  considerable. 
Mr.  Bordley^  recommends  not  to  force  hogs  to  eat  salt 
by  mixing  it  vviih  their  food,  but  place  it  where  they 
can  have  access  to  it  at  their  pleasure. 

Swine  kept  in  too  warm,  and  more  so  in  filthy  pens, 
are  ever  subject  to  diseases  and  unprofitable  feeding. 
There  is  no  greater  mistake  than  that  o[ gorging  swine, 
when  lirst  penned  for  fatting.  They  'should,  on  the 
contrary,  be  moderately  and  frequently  fed ;  so  that 
they  be  kept  full,  but  do  not  loath,  or  reject  their  food  ; 
and  in  the  end  contract  feveis  and  dangerous  maladies  , 
originating  in  a  hot  and  corrupted  mass  of  blood  ;  against 
some  of  which,  dry  rotten  wood  is  a  preventive.  Their 
meals  should  be  regular,  and  as  nearly  equi-distant  in 
point  of  time  as  possible.  Posts  ought  to  be  set  up  in 
the  stye  for  them  to  rub  acrainst. 

To  keep  hogs  in  health,  and  prevent  them  from  hav- 
ing the  measles ;  about  once  a  week  mix  two  spoonfuls 
of  madder  in  their  food  ;  and  on  some  other  day  in  the 
week,  give  a  spoonful  or  two  of  an  equal  quantity  of 
flour  of  sulphur,  and  saltpetre,  well  pounded  and  mixed, 
and  added  to  their  food. 

The  business  of  fatting  hogs  should  be  begun  so  early 
in  the  iall,  (say  first  of  October)  as  to  be  completed 
early  in  December;  as  after  cold  weather  sets  in,  they 
will  fatten  very  slowly. 

PASTURES. 

The  grounds  that  are  the  most  perfectly  adapted  to 
this  uscj  are  all  those  which  have  a  considerable  deptk 


PASTURES.  171 

df  good  mould,  and  at  the  same  time  that  they  aflford  a 
good  herbage,  are  so  dry  in  their  nature  as  to  admit  the 
animals  to  feed  upon  them  at  almost  all  seasons  without 
hijury  by  poachiiig. 

The  subdivisions  of  land,  that  is  kept  for  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  pasturing,  should  depend  as  well  upon  its  fertili- 
ty, as  upon  the  number  of  different  kinds  of  cattle  that 
are  to  be  fed  on  it.  Fifty  acres  of  land,'  that  would  on- 
ly feed  three  cows  during  the  season,  would  not  pay 
the  expense  of  subdividing.  On  the  contrary,  if  the 
farmer  has  but  three  cows,  and  has  three  acres  of  the 
best  pasture  land,  he  ought  to  divide  this  into  at  least 
two  parts;  so  that  the  one  can  be  growing  while  the 
other  is  feeding.  Or,  if  he  keep  twenty  c^ws,  and  has 
twenty  acres  of  the  best  pasture,  it  wiU  be  protitable  to 
divide  it  into  four  parts,  pasturing  each  enclosure  three 
©r  four  days,  alterndlely.  In  this  way,  pasture  lands 
will  keep  at  least  one  fourth  more  cattle,  than  if  the 
whole  were  in  one  field. 

Not  only  a  change  of  pasture  is  beneficial,  but  a  change 
of  different  kinds  of  cattle  in  the  same  pastures  should 
be  attended  to.  Thus,  let  the  milch  cows  take  the  first 
cropping  of  each  field,  in  rotation  ;  then  the  horses  and 
oxen,  and  the  sheep  next.  In  this  wa}',  the  last  feeder 
will  eat  much  grass  that  has  been  neglected  by  the 
former. 

It  is  hurtful  to  pastures  to  turn  in  cattle  too  early  in 
the  spring  ;  particularl}^  to  those  which  are  wet.  Poach- 
ing such  land  destroys  the  sward,  so  that  it  will  pro- 
duce the  less  quantity  of  grass.  They  should  not  be 
turned  in  till  there  is  a  good  bite.  The  latter  part  of 
May  is  early  enough. 

By  draining  wet  miry  spots  in  pasture,  the  grass  will 
probably  be  doubled  in  quantity,  and  much  improved  in 
quality.  Bushes  should  be  cut  out  and  destroyed  ;  this- 
tles and  other  noxious  weeds  should  be  mowed  down  be- 
fore they  go  to  seed,  and  every  mean  taken  to  eradicate 
them.  It  is  never  advisable  to  pasture  lands  too  close- 
ly, particularly  in  the  fall,  as  this  only  tends  to  diminish 
the  quantity  the  next  year.  The  dung  that  is  lefl, 
should  be  beat  to  pieces,  and  scattered  over  the  field. 
Plaster,  or  lime  ashes,  sown  upon  pasture  grounds,  will 
repay  a  handsome  profit,  by  increasing  the  quantity  and 


172  SOILING  OF  CATTLE. 

value  of  feed,  by  bringiog  in  the  finer  grasses,  such  as 
while  clover,  &c. 

Sheep  require  no  water  in  their  pastures ;  it  is  also 
said  that  calves  should  have  none :  and,  horses  require  but 
little,  except  wnen  they  are  worked.  The  effect  of  this 
treatment  is,  that  they  become  habituated  to  iie  by  in 
the  heat  of  the  day,  and  feed  at  night,  when  the  dew  is 
on  the  grass,  which  renders  it  more  nouri^^hing.  Cows, 
however,  must  have  water:  and  where  it  is  scare..',  the 
farmer  may  select  some  small  stream,  spring,  or  pond, 
or  large  trough,  supplied  from  some  neighbouring  spring, 
and  divide  the  pasture  so  as  to  have  four  or  more  in- 
closures  centre  in,  or  upon  the  brook,  pond,  or  reser- 
voir ;  in  this  way  lifty  or  sixty  acres  may  be  supplied 
with  water.  But  if  there  is  no  water,  the  best  way  is 
to  sink  a  well  at  that  spot  where  the  pasture  lots  corner 
together  ;  and  then  by  a  lirtle  cheap  wind-machinery, 
the  trough  may'be  filled  as  often  as  necessary.  In  pas- 
tures which  are  on  the  sides  of  hills,  water  may  be  ea- 
sily obtained,  by  digging  horizontally  into  the  hill  tiU 
you  come  to  it,  and  then  carrying  it  out  in  a  pi[>e.  An- 
other method  is,  to  dig  a  well  on  a  steep  part  of  the  hill, 
and  place  a  syphon  in  it,  with  bO  small  a  pipe  that  it 
will  not  let  off  the  water  fast  enough  to  exhaust  it  in 
the  well. 

'■  Lastly,  as  a  matter  of  ornament,  profit,  and  shade  for 
cattle,  let  your  pastures  be  planted  with  a  few  useful 
trees;  and  prohably,  for  this  purpf;se,  the  locust  will  be 
most  suitable  for  dry,  and  the  sugar-maple  for  moist 
lands. 

SOILING    OF    CATTLE. 

By  this  is  meant,  the  feeding  of  stock  in  a  house, 
shed,  or  fold,  during  the  growing  season,  with  grass,  &:c. 
cut  and  carried  in  to  them.  It  is  particularly  recom- 
mended for  miich  cows,  working  horses,  and  oxen,  and 
for  fatting  cattle  ;  and  it  has  been  found  to  answer  well 
for  swine. 

It  is  observed  by  Mr.  Quincy^  of  Massachusetts,  that 
there  are  six  distinct  advantages,  which  those,  who  ad- 
vocate soiling,  propose  to  themselves  by  the  practice, 
and  on  which  they  establish  the  preference  of  this  mode 
to  the  common  one  of  pasturing  cattle  during  the  sum- 
mer. 


SOILING  QF  CATTLE.  173 


1st.  The  sating  of  land.  For  it  is  said  by  those  who 
have  practised  soiling,  that  a  spot  of  ground  which, 
"vvhen  pastured,  will  yield  only  suthcient  food  for  one 
head,  will  abundantly  maintain  four^  when  kept  in  the 
stable. 

2d.  The  saving  of  fencings  The  general  effect  of 
soiling  cattle  is,  to  render  all  interior  fences  absolutely  use- 
less. 

3d.  The  economising  of  food.  There  are  six  ways  by 
which  beasts  destroy  the  article  destined  tor  their  food  ; 
viz.  By  eating ;  walking  ;  dunging ;  staling  ;  lying  down  ; 
and  breathing  on  it  :  Of  these,  the  tirst  only  is  useful. 
By  cutting  the  same,  and  feeding  it  to  them  in  the  stall, 
sparingly,  in  point  of  time,  but  sufficiently  in  point  of 
quantity,  every  particle  will  be  consumed  ;  and  beasts 
will  eat  many  products  of  the  earth,  in  the  stall,  which 
they  will  refuse  in  the  pasture. 

4th.  7he  better  condition  and  greater  comfort  of  the  cat- 
tle. They  are  less  subject  to  accidents  and  diseases  ; 
they  are  protected  from  the  flies ;  and  they  do  not  suf- 
fer from  the  heat  of  summer.  Stall  feeding,  does  not 
imply  keeping  cattle  in  stalls,  or  in  the  house  the  whole 
time.  It  only  intends,  always  feeding  them  there,  and 
keeping  them  there  the  chief  of  the  time.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  an  essential  part  of  the  system,  to  let  them 
loose  in  yards  well  shaded,  at  least  two  hours  in  the  fore- 
noon, and  two  in  the  afternoon. 

5th.  The  greater  product  of  milk.  Although  the  quan- 
tity of  milk  may  not  be  greater  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  when  pastures  abound  with  a  flush  of  feed,  yet 
Mr.  (^uincy  has  found  from  experience,  that  by  provid- 
ing a  regular  succession  of  succulent  crops,  the  milk 
product  will  be  undiminished  ;  and  therefore  greatly  ex- 
ceed that  obtained  by  pasturing. 

6th.  The  attainment  of  manure.  Soiling  is  supposed  to 
afford  more  than  double  the  quantity  of  manure  from 
the  same  number  of  cattle ;  for  the  best  summer  ma- 
nure is  produced  in  the  stable,  and  carried  to  the  field 
when  in  the  most  suitable  condition;  whereas,  when 
scattered  about  lields,  and  exhausted  by  the  air  audsuD, 
it  is  much  wasted. 

There  are  other  advantages  attending  this  method  of 
husbandry.     The  trouble  of  driving  the  mikh  cows  to 
16 


171  SOILING    OF    CATTLE. 

and  from  the  pastures,  is  saved  ;  the  working  horses  and 
oxen  are  always  at  hand  ;  and,  what  is  of  no  small  im- 
])urtance,  when  the  cattle  are  housed  the  growing  crops 
are  in  more  safety. 

The  only  ofiset  to  all  these  advantages  is  the  labour 
of  raising  and  cutting  the  food,  and  feeding  and  taking 
care  of  the  stock. 

The  crops  necessary  for  soiling,  may  be  r3^e  (sown 
the  preceding  year)  oats,  barley,  millet,  (this  has  been 
cultivated  to  advantage  in  this  State  the  present  year) 
Indian  corn,  sown  broadcast,  clover  and  various  grasses ; 
besides  cabbages  and  roots,  so  arranged  as  to  have  a 
succession  of  succulent  food  through  the  season.  Any 
sorts  of  grain  sown  to  produce  fodder  for  soiling,  after 
being  harrowed  in,  should  be  rolled,  to  make  the  ground 
smooth  for  mowing.  If  the  soil  be  rich  and  the  surface 
smooth,  the  grass  may  be  cut  when  only  three  or 
ibur  inches  high,  and  will  then  yield  a  good  swarth. 
Such  ground  well  set  with  the  grasses  usually  cul- 
tivated and  inclined  to  moisture,  may  in  this  man- 
ner be  mown  three  or  four  times  in  a  season.  The  cut- 
ting of  the  rye,  oats,  barley  and  millet  should  commence 
as  soon  as  they  will  yield  a  good  swarth,  and  be  finish- 
ed before  they  have  passed  the  flowering  stnte.  If 
mown  before  they  flower,  they  will  shoot  again  ;  and  if 
the  growth  be  rich,  yield  second  crops, 

Indian  corn  will  be  well  grown  for  soiling  by  the  10th 
or  15th  of  July  :  and  will  continue  green,  and  in  full  sap 
until  the  last  of  August.  And  in  order  to  continue  a 
supply  of  the  rich,  green  food — to  which  probably  no 
other  vegetable  of  our  countr}''  is  equal,  especially  for 
milch  cows — pieces  of  land  may  be  planted  or  sown  in 
succession,  so  that  some  may  be  in  full  sap  to  the  last 
of  September. 

Rich  mowing  land  will  furnish  a  second  and  third 
crop,  of  green  fodder  that  will  answer  to  the  middle  or 
iast  of  October.  Perhaps  hie  sown  oats,  hardier  plants 
than,  Indian  corn,  may  supply  the  place  of  gras«?.  Pump- 
kiltps,  also,  during  this  month  and  the  next,  will  furnish  a 
riu»st  valuable  food.  To  these  may  be  added  the  tops 
of. winter  vegeiablcs,  such  as  carrots,  turnips,  &,c.  which 
will  be  useful  till  the  middle  of  November.  Mr.  Quincy 
has  been  abie  to  support  I'O  head  of  cattle,  from  the 
\hi\i  of  October  to  the  middle  or  latter  end  of  Novcm- 


SOILING    OF    CAITLE.  175 

ber  with  the  tops  of  veg-etables  raised  on  eight  to  twelve 
acres  of  hiiiil,  with  the  addition  of  only  a  sinj^le  fodder- 
ing of  salt  hay,  per  day.  If,  however,  the  farmer  is  not 
in  the  practice  ot  raising  a  sulTicient  quantity  of  roots,  to 
yield  a  support  for  his  stock,  for  five  or  six  weeks,  cab- 
bages are,  in  tins  climate,  the  farmer's  best  dependance, 
after  the  second  cutting  of  the  grass  and  corn,  and  oat 
fodder  fail. 

After  November,  potatoes,  mangel  wurtzel  and  car- 
rots, added  plentifully  to  their  dry  fodder,  even  if 
this  be  only  barley,  or  oat  straw,  or  wet  or  low  meadow 
hay,  will  doubtless  keep  cows  in  milch  till  within  a  suit- 
able time  of  their  calving.  Cows,  during  the  time  of 
their  going  dry,  and  other  stock  at  all  times,  fully  sup- 
plied with  ruta  baga,  or  common  turnips,  with  the  same 
poor  dry  fodder,  may  be  kept  in  high  condition.  In 
England,  cattle  intended  for  beef  are  often  fatted  on 
wheat  straw  and  turnips,  giving  of  the  latter  as  many  as 
they  will  eat.  They  commence  feeding  in  this  manner 
in  Autumn,  and  b}'  the  spring  the  cattle  are  fat  for  the 
market. 

Rye,  oats,  barley  and  millet  when  destined  for  soiling, 
should  be  sown  twice  as  thick  as  when  intended  to  ri- 
pen their  seeds.  In  like  manner  Indian  corn  may  be 
planted  iii  continued  rows  only  so  far  apart  as  to  admit 
a  small  })iough  in  its  culture,  and  with  the  plants  onl;/ 
foar  or  live  inches  a  part  in  the  rows.  The  surface  of 
the  ground  should  be  smooth  in  the  rows,  so  as  to  admit 
of  mowing  the  corn :  Or  it  may  be  sown  broadcast, 
ploughed  or  harrowed  in,  by  harrowing  both  ways,  and 
afterwards  rolled. 

The  essential  point  in  soiling,  is  to  make  and  save  the 
greatest  possible  quantity  of  barn-dung.  Some  of  the 
most  intelligent  farmers,  therefore  have  barns  with  cel- 
lars under  them,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  dung 
of  the  cattle,  and  into  these  the  dung  and  litter  are  con- 
stantly thrown.  Suitable  earths  are  also  laid  behind 
the  cattle  to  absorb  the  stale  as  it  runs  backward,  and 
these,  when  saturated,  are  also  thrown  down  and  mix- 
ed with  the  dung.  The  cellar  should  not  be  very  deep, 
and  should  be  open  for  the  admission  of  air  during  the 
summer.  The  bottom  ought  to  be  made  water  tight 
with  clay.  Others  prefer  sheds  adjoining  the  barn,  to 
keep  tha  dang  under  cover  to  protect  it  from  the  rains, 


170  SOILING    OF    CATTLE. 

The  proportion  of  valuable  manure  that  the  Careful 
husbantJMuui  may  provide  by  this  system  of  management 
is  scarcely  to  be  conceived. 

The  whole  supply  of  food  for  the  da)"^,  can  be  cut  and 
carried  to  the  barn  in  the  morning-.  A  light  hand-cart, 
or  wheelbarrow,  will  be  found  convenient  for  bringing 
in  the  grass  from  the  parts  of  the  field  nearest  the  barn  ; 
and  a  horse-cart,  from  those  most  distant.  Double 
siieds,  in  which  a  sufficient  space  is  left  before  the  cattle, 
for  the  feeder  to  go  with  a  large  wheelbarrow  to  dis- 
tribute their  food,  are,  perhaps,  the  best  constructions 
for  feeding  houses  ;  being  not  only  most  commodious, 
but  less  building  will  be  required  for  the  same  number 
of  cattle,  than  by  having  them  all  to  face  one  way. 
The  food  is  distributed,  under  cover,  about  six  times 
a  day,  in  due  proportions,  which  the  usual  practical 
knowledge  of  a  farmer  will  easily  regulate. 

Mr.  Qiiincy  has  kept  for  several  years  the  same 
amount  of  stock,  by  soiling,  on  seventeen  acres  of  land, 
though  not  in  high  tilth,  which  had  always  previously 
required  fifty  acres.  But  he  advises  the  farmer  to  keep 
on  hand,  a  month  or  six  weeks  stock  of  hay  or  other 
food ;  so  as  to  have  assurance  that  his  cattle  should  not 
suffer  by  drought,  or  any  other  untoward  accident  of 
season.  A  mixture  of  dry  food  with  the  succulent,  is 
very  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  animals  soiled,  and 
enables  the  feeder  to  check  the  too  great  looseness  of 
the  bowels  ;  often  the  effect  of  high  feeding  upon  juicy 
vegetables. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  those  cows  which  have 
been  always  used  to  be  kept  by  soiling,  during  the  grow- 
ing season,  are  usually  more  profitable  than  those  which 
have  been  newly  put  to  this  method  of  keeping. 

The  practice  of  soiling  cannot,  of  course,  be  advisa- 
ble to  that  class  of  agriculturalists,  whose  farms  contain 
tracts  of  land  suitable  for  nothing  else  than  pasturage, 
but  to  that  class,  whose  farms  are  small,  and  who  are 
stimulated  by  that  correct  ambition  of  possessing  a  little 
land  highly  cultivated,  rather  than  a  great  deal  misera- 
bly managed  ;  to  that  class,  also,  whose  entire  farms  are 
capable  of  being  tilled  or  mown — where  fencing  stuff  is 
dear — where  grass  is  of  great  value — where  cultivation 
is  carried  to  great  perfection — where  population  is  dense 


Bl/TTER.  177 

—and  particularly  where  their  situation  Joes  not  place 
them  within  any  easy  access  to  manures  ; — in  such  sit- 
uations, the  practice  above  proposed  presents  advanta- 
ges of  the  most  decided  and  unequivocal  character. 

Mr.  Robbins  thinks  that  a  system,  combined  of  soiling- 
and  pasturage,  might  be  a  great  improvement  upon  our 
present  system — soiling  of  our  working  cattle,  in  the 
season  of  work,  and  soiling  of  our  cows,  combined  witli 
pasturage.  Under  this  system,  almost  any  farm,  even  a 
very  rough  one,  might  be  greatly  improved 

There  can  scarcely  be  any  doubt  of  the  advantage  of 
soiling,  where  that  close  sort  of  attention  which  is  requi- 
site in  most  of  the  operations  of  farming,  is  bestowed  : 
but  in  order  to  the  success  of  the  practice,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  cattle  be  kept  clean  ;  that  there  be  plenty  of 
pure  water  for  them  to  drink ;  that  the  food  be  given 
them  frequently  and  in  due  portions,  without  its  becom- 
ing injured  by  keeping;  and  that  they  be  turned  out  for 
a  few  hours  ia  the  cool  of  the  morning  and  evening,  in 
the  summer  season,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  when 
the  weather  becomes  more  cold.  It  might  also  be  of 
additional  advantage  where  different  kinds  of  green  food 
can  be  easily  provided,  to  vary  them  occasionally. 

There  is  no  proposition  in  nature  more  true,  observes 
Mr.  Q/u'/icy,  than  that  any  larmer  may  maintain  by  this 
system,  upon  thirty  acres  of  good  arable  land^  ticcntij  head 
of  cattle,  in  better  condition,  with  more  prolit,  with  more 
comfort  to  the  animals,  with  less  labor,  less  trouble,  and 
less  cash  advance  to  himself,  than  he  at  present  usually 
expends  upon  one  hundred  acres.  In  addition  to  which 
he  will  have  the  great  satisfaction  of  seeing,  in  time,  ev- 
ery square  inch  of  his  land  productive,  instead  of  seeing,, 
as  he  does  now,  not  more  than  one  part  in  four  of  his 
farm  producing  any  thing;  or  at  least,  any  that  will  pay 
the  expense  of  harvesting. 

BUTTF.R. 

Pans,  or  trays,  for  holding  milk,  to  raise  the  most  cream 
ought  to  be  broad  and  shallow,  and  the  milk  put  in  theiiK 
should  not  be  more  than  three  or  four  inches  in  depth. 
Tin  or  wood  are  the  best  materials  for  making  tliesc. 
Some  line  wooden  trays  with  lead  ;  but  this  is  a  bad 
practice,  as  lead  may  sonaetimes    be   dissolved    by  the 

*16 


178  BUTTER. 

ncid  of  the  milk,  and  then  it  is  poisonous.  Wooden 
tra^^s  ought  to  be  well  scalded,  and  dried  in  a  cool  place, 
as  often  as  new  milk  is  put  into  them. 

If  new  milk  be  kept  as  warm  as  it  comes  from  the 
cow,  no  cream  will  rise  on  it ;  but,  when  sufficiently  cool- 
ed, it  separates  from  the  rest  and  rises  to  the  top.  la 
order  then  to  eifect  this,  to  the  best  advantage,  the  new 
milk  should  be  made  as  cool  as  possible,  and  the  cooler 
it  is  thus  made,  the  more  suddenly  and  effectually  the 
cream  will  rise.  The  cooler  the  cellars,  therefore,  in 
which  milk  is  kept,  the  better.  To  set  milk  pans,  made 
of  tin,  in  beds  of  salt,  would,  no  doubt,  be  useful  when 
the  cellar  is  too  warm ;  and  to  set  all  milk  vessels  on  a 
lloor  which  is  constantly  covered  with  cold  spring  water, 
is  also  an  excellent  plan ;  and,  where  it  can  be  done, 
ought  never  to  be  omitted.  Wetting  the  floor  will  an- 
swer. 

Most  of  the  cream  comes  last  from  the  cow  in  milk- 
ing. The  last  half  pint,  contains  as  much  cream  as  the 
IJrst  quart,  or  perhaps  three  pints ;  and,  for  this  reason, 
they  ought  to  be  milked  as  clean  as  possible.  The 
quantity  of  cream  will  be  greater,  if  the  milk  of  each 
cow  be  strained  into  a  pan  by  itself.  In  cold  weather 
the  milk  should  be  strained  immediately  after  milking, 
but  in  very  warm  weather  it  can  be  left  till  nearly 
cool. 

In  hot  weather  the  cream  should  be  skimmed  from  the 
milk  at  or  before  sunrise,  and  in  about  twenty-four 
hours  after  it  is  taken  from  the  cow.  In  winter,  milk 
may  remain  unskimmed  thirty-six  or  forty-eight  hours. 
The  cream  should  be  deposited  in  a  deep  pan,  kept  du- 
rino"  summer  in  a  cool  place,  where  a  free  air  is  admitted. 
Unless  churning  is  performed  every  other  day,  the  cream 
should  be  shifted  daily  into  clean  pans.  If  a  pump 
churn  is  used,  it  may  be  plunged  a  foot  deep  in  cold 
water,  and  remain  in  that  situation  during  the  whole 
lime  of  churning,  which  will  much  harden  the  butter. 
A  strong  rancid  flavour  will  be  given  to  butter  if  the 
churn  is  placed  so  near  the  Are  as  to  heat  the  wood  in 
the  winter  season.  In  churning  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
a  regular  stroke.  After  the  butter  is  churned,  it  should 
be  perfectly  cleansed  from  the  milk  before  salting. 


BITTTER.  179 

For  curing  butter,  take  two  parts  of  the  best  com- 
mon salt,  one  of  brown-sugar,  and  one  ofsalpetre  ;  beat 
them  together  so  as  to  blend  them  completely,  apply 
one  ounce  of  this  to  every  pound  of  butter ;  and  work 
it  well  into  the  mass.  It  should  be  put  into  firkins,  and 
so  closely  packed  and  crowded,  that  no  air  can  be  in 
contact  with  the  butter  ;  which  should  be  carefully 
covered  with  a  piece  of  fine  cloth,  after  diping  it  in 
melted  sweet  butter.  When  more  is  to  be  put  into  the 
tub,  take  up  the  cloth  ;  and  after  that  is  well  crowded 
in  and  levelled,  put  on  the  cloth  again  so  nicely  as  to 
shut  out,  if  possible,  every  particle  of  air.  Butter  salt- 
ed in  this  manner  and  put  down  in  close  tubs,  with  a 
little  melted  butter  poured  over  the  surface,  to  fill  up 
every  vacuity,  before  the  top  is  put  on,  will  keep  much 
longer,  and  be  worth  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent,  more 
than  that  which  has  been  cured  with  salt  alone.  It  must 
not,  however,  be  used  sooner  than  three  or  four  weeks 
nfter  it  has  been  laid  down,  as  it  does  not  fully  acquire 
its  rich  marrowy  taste,  until  about  that  length  of  time. 
The  tubs,  during  summer  and  fall,  should  stand  on  the 
coldest  part  of  the  cellar. 

For  keeping  butter  sweet  that  is  salted  in  the  usual 
way,  it  should  be  salted  with  an  ounce  and  a  half,  or 
more,  of  the  strongest  and  best  salt,  finely  powdered, 
to  each  pound,  and  so  thoroughly  mixed  that  every  part 
may  be  equally  salt ;  made  into  rolls,  and  then  put  into 
a  cask  of  pure  strong  brine,  and,  for  keeping  the  rolls 
completely  immersed  in  this  Hquid,  there  should  be  a 
cover,  suitable  to  the  dimension  of  the  inside  of  the 
cask,  to  be  laid  on  the  rolls,  and  sunk  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  brine  by  a  weight,  which  may  be  a  block 
of  wood,  fastened  to  the  cover,  that  will  sink  only  a 
given  depth.  The  brine  does  not  penetrate  the  butter 
so  as  to  give  out  any  additional  saltness.  For  clarifying 
the  brine  it  should  occasionally  be  scalded,  the  scum  ta- 
ken off,  and  more  salt  added  if  necessary.  Butter  made 
in  May  is  observed  to  be  best  for  keeping. 

Milk  or  butter  should  not  be  put  in  stone  jars,  as  they 
communicate  a  poisonous  quality  extremely  injurious  to 
the  human  constitution.  Wooden  vessels  are  the  most 
proper  for  containing  salted  butter,  and  oak  the  best 
kind  of    wood.     Iron  hoops  should  not  be   used,   as  the 


1 80  ELTTER 

rust  of  them  will  in  time  sink  tbrough  the  wood  and  in- 
jure the  butter.  As  it  is  very  difficult  to  season  new 
firkins,  it  will  always  be  preferable  to  employ  those 
w^hich  have  been  already  used.  The  most  speedy  me- 
thod of  seasoning  firkins  is,  by  the  use  of  unslacked 
lime,  or  a  large  quantity  of  salt  and  water  well  boiled ; 
with  which  they  should  be  repeatedly  scrubbed,  and  af- 
terwards thrown  into  cold  water,  to  remain  there  three 
or  four  days  till  wanted.  They  should  then  be  scrubed 
as  before,  and  well  rinsed  with  cold  water ;  and,  before 
the  butter  is  put  in,  every  part  of  the  inside  must  be 
well  rubbed  with  salt. 

If  any  ill  flavour  is  apprehended  from  the  cows  hav- 
ing eaten  turnips,  Sic.  the  addition  of  one  eighth  part  of 
boiling  water  to  the  milk  before  it  is  poured  into  the 
dishes  will  effectually  remove  it.  Or  a  small  bit  of 
saltpetre,  powdered  and  put  into  the  milk  pan  with  the 
new  milk,  prevents  the  cream  and  butter  from  being 
tainted,  although  the  cows  be  fed  on  the  refuse  leavei 
of  cabbages  and  turnips. 

An  improvement  in  the  dasher  of  the  common  churn 
has  been  made,  by  which  that  kind  of  churn  is  consid- 
ered by  many  to  be,  for  common  purposes,  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  any  in  use.  The  dasher  turns  on  the  han- 
dle, by  being  fixed  to  it  by  a  pivot.  The  dasher  is 
merely  two  cross-pieces,  say,  three  inches  square,  put 
together,  by  being  let  into  each  other,  which  then  form 
four  wings.  These  are  cut  leveling  on  each  side,  at  an 
angle  of  Ibrty-five  degrees,  so  that  they  stand  diagonal- 
ly ;  the  whole  being  very  similar  to  the  wings  of  the 
little  windmills  (so  called)  which  are  set  up,  on  poles, 
to  be  turned  by  the  wind.  As  this  dasher  goes  down  in 
the  milk,  it  turns  one  way,  on  its  pivot  in  the  lower  end 
of  the  handle,  and  as  it  comes  up,  it  turns  the  other 
way ;  and  this  produces  an  agitation  of  the  milk,  better 
calculated  for  producing  the  butter,  than  any  method 
ever  yet  known.  It  is  so  efficacious  in  its  operation, 
that  the  churning  must  be  performed  moderately,  or  the 
butter  will  come  too  soon,  and  be  sivelted^  as  it  is  tech- 
nically called  by  some. 


CHEESE.  181 

CHEESE. 

Cheese  is  mentioned  by  the  most  ancient  writers. 

"  Around  the  grot  we  gaze  ;  and  all  we  view, 

In  order  ranged,  our  admiration  drew  : 

The  bending  shelves,  with  loads  of  cheeses  prest,  &c.'" 

Homer. 

But  let  us  attend  to  the  best  mode  of  loading  our 
shelves  with  first  rate  cheeses. 

Make  your  milk  blood-warm,  and  put  in  your  runnet  ; 
but  no  more  than  will  just  make  the  curd  come.  Add  an 
ounce  of  fine  salt  to  so  much  curd  as  will  make  a  cheese 
of  fitlteen  pounds,  and  in  proportion  for  a  greater  or  less. 
Stir  the  curd  till  it  is  gathered  ;  put  it  in  a  strainer, 
and  with  your  hands  work  out  all  the  vvhey ;  then  lay  it 
in  a  clean  linnen  cloth,  put  it  in  the  hoop,  and,  cover- 
ing it  with  the  cloth,  put  it  in  the  press,  and  let  it  stand 
there  two  hours ;  then  take  it  out,  rub  it  over  with  fine 
salt,  put  it  in  another  dry  cloth,  and  put  it  in  the  press 
eight  hours ;  then  take  it  out  again,  put  in  another  dry 
cloth,  and  put  it  in  the  press  again,  where  it  is  to  remain 
till  the  next  cheese  is  ready.  When  taken  out  of  the 
press,  put  it  in  brine  twenty-four  hours,  and  add  to  the 
brine  about  a  tea  spoon  full  of  saltpetre.  Some  little 
additions  of  salt  and  saltpetre  must  be  occasionally  made 
to  the  brine  ;  and  let  it  he  cleansed  as  soon  as  necessa- 
ry, by  heating  it  and  taking  off  the  scum.  When  you 
take  the  cheese  out,  dry  it  with  a  cloth  ;  bind  it  round 
with  a  long  string  to  make  it  keep  its  shape,  which  must 
be  kept  round  it  tor  some  days,  and  let  it  be  daily  turn- 
ed on  the  shelf,  for  two  months. 

Let  the  evening  milk  be  put  with  that  of  the  morning  ; 
and,  to  make  the  best  cheeses,  let  none  of  the  cream 
be  taken  away.  If  the  evening  milk,  however,  be 
skimmed,  and  added  to  that  of  the  morning,  it  will 
make  tolerable  cheese.  Skim-milk  cheeses  are  also 
made  ;  but  they  are  not  worth  much. 

Wooden  vessels  are  considered  most  wholesome  for 
holding  the  milk ;  but  if  tin  be  used,  they  should  be 
washed  every  time  they  are  emptied,  with  warm  water, 
in  which  a  little  salt  has  been  dissolved,  and  should  be 
kept  clean  by  scouring;  and  to  prevent  acidity  in  wood- 
en vessels,  they  should  in  like  manner  be  scoured  and 
cleaned  with  warm  water. 


182  CHEESE. 

The  dairy  requires  too  apnrtmeiits  ;  and  a  clean  cool 
room  in  the  cellar  for  the  miik,  and  a  dark  room  above 
ground  for  drying  and  keeping  the  cheese.  Cheese 
sliould  not  be  set  to  dry  in  the  safne  room  where  the 
milk  is  set,  for  they  commiiaicate  an  acid  matter  to 
the  surrounding  air,  v/hich  will  have  a  tendency  to  make 
the  milk  sour.  The  room  must  be  perfectly  dark,  to 
keep  out  Hies,  and  every  thing  belonging  to  the  dairy 
must  be  kept  quite  clean.  To  prevent  skippers,  take  a 
pod  of  red  pepper,  and  put  it  into  a  piece  of  fine  linen, 
moisten  it  with  a  little  butter,  and  rub  the  cheese  witli 
it  frequenth^  To  prevent  flies  from  depositing  their 
eggs  in  the  cracks  of  cheeses,  let  them  be  lilled  with 
paste  made  of  butter  and  flour.  To  give  them  a  fine 
color,  let  a  little  annatto  be  put  in  the  milk.  This  is 
harmless.  But  beware  of  coloring  them  with  any  thing 
that  is  poisonous. 

But  no  good  cheese  can  be  made  unless  the  runnet  be 
good.  The  rank  and  putrid  taste,  which  is  so  often  in 
cheeses  made  in  this  country,  is  attributed  to  a  putridity 
in  the  rennet.  In  order  to  have  the  rennet  in  perfection, 
the  calf  should  have  lived  on  new  milk  only,  and  be 
quite  in  health  at  the  time  of  being  killed.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  maw-skin  is  always  found  to  contain, 
when  taken  out  of  the  calf,  more  or  less  of  a  firm,  white, 
curd-like  matter.  A  good  method  of  making  the  rennet 
i^  as  follows  :  Empty  the  maw  of  its  curd  ;  wash  it  slight- 
ly ;  soak  it  in  strong  brine  till  it  is  well  salted  ;  dry  it  on 
boughs  mads  for  the  purpose  ;  then  take  two  quarts  of 
.strong  brine  that  will  bear  an  ei^g.  blood-warm,  and  let 
the  maw  steep  in  this  twenty-four  hours,  when  the  liquor 
will  be  fit  for  use  ;  bottle  it  up,  and  cork  it  tight,  and  it 
will  keep  ibr  a  twelve  month.  About  a  tea-cup  full  will 
be  sufficient  for  the  miik  often  cows.  Some  direct  spi- 
ces, and  a  lemon  sliced,  to  be  put  into  tliis  liquor.  Or 
the  runnet  bag  may  be  salted  and  dried,  as  before  di- 
rected, and  pieces  of  it  occasionally  used,  by  being  pre- 
viously soaked  in  warm  water,  and  a  quantity  of  this 
water  used,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  milk  to  be 
turned. 

The  following  method  of  cheese  making  is  recom- 
mended in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository. 
The  milk  i:-:   unJVi.'rsa]!y   set  for  cheese   as  soon   as  it 


CHEESE.  183 

comes  from  the  cow.  The  management  of  the  curd  de- 
pends on  the  kind  of  cheese  :  thin  cheese  requires  the 
least  labor  and  attention.  Breaking  the  curd  is  done 
with  the  hand  and  dish.  The  finer  the  curd  is  broken 
the  better,  particularly  in  thick  cheeses.  Turning  the 
milk  differs  in  different  dairies ;  no  two  dairy  women 
conduct  exactly  alike.  Setting  the  milk  too  hot  inclines 
the  cheese  to  heave,  and  cooling  it  with  cold  water  pro- 
duces a  similar  effect.  The  degree  of  heat  is  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  weather.  The  curd,  when  formed,  is 
broken  with  what  is  called  a  triple  cheese  knife.  The 
use  of  this  is  to  keep  the  fat  in  the  cheese ;  it  is  drawn 
the  depth  of  the  curd  two  or  three  times  across  the  tub, 
to  give  the  whey  an  opportunity  of  running  off  clear  ; 
after  a  few  minutes  the  knife  is  more  freely  used,  and 
the  curd  is  cut  into  small  pieces  like  chequers,  and  is 
broken  fine  in  the  whey,  with  the  hand  and  a  wooden 
dish.  The  curd  being,  allowed  about  half  an  hour  to 
settle,  the  whey  is  Inded  off  with  the  dish,  after  it  is 
pretty  well  separated  from  the  curd.  It  is  almost  an  in- 
variable practice  to  scald  the  curd.  The  mass  is  first 
broken  very  fine,  and  then  the  scalding  whey  is  added 
to  it,  and  stirred^  a  i'ew  minutes  ;  some  make  use  of  the 
hot  water  in  preference  to  the  whey,  and  it  is  in  both  cases 
treated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  curd;  if  it  is  soft, 
the  whey  or  water  is  used  nearly  boiling;  but  if  hard, 
it  is  used  only  a  little  hotter  than  the  hand.  After  the 
curd  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  hot  stuff,  it  is  suffered 
to  stand  a  few  minutes  to  settle  and  is  then  separated, 
as  at  the  first  cj  oration.  After  the  scaldiug  liquor  is 
separated,  a  vat,  or  what  is  often  called  a  cheese  hoop, 
is  laid  across  the  cheese  ladder  over  the  tub,  and  the 
curd  is  crumbled  into  it  with  the  hand  and  pressed 
into  the  vat,  to  squeeze  out  the  whey. 

The  vat  being  filled  as  full  and  firmly  as  the  hand  can 
fill  it,  and  rounded  up  in  the  middle,  a  cheese  cloth  iai 
spread  over  it,  and  the  curd  is  turned  out  of  the  hoop 
into  the  cloth  ;  the  vat  is  then  washed,  and  the  inverted 
mass  of  curd,  with  the  cloth  under  it,  is  turned  into  the 
vat  and  put  into  the  press  ;  after  standing  two  or  three 
hours  in  the  press,  the  vat  is  taken  out  and  the  cloth  is 
taken  off,  washed,  and  put  round  the  cheese,  and  it  is 
replaced  in  the  vat  and  in  t'ae  press.     In  about  seven  or 


184  FRUIT    TREES. 

eight  hours  it  is  taken  out  of  the  press  and  salted,  the 
cheese  is  placed  on  a  board,  and  an  handfull  of  salt  is 
rubbed  all  over  it,  and  the  edge?  are  pared  off  if  necessa- 
ry ;  another  handfull  of  salt  is  strewed  on  the  upper 
side,  and  as  much  left  as  will  stick  to  it ;  afterwards  it 
is  turned  into  the  bare  vat  without  a  cloth,  and  an  equal 
quantity  of  salt  is  added  to  it,  and  the  cheese  is  return- 
ed into  the  press ;  where  it  continues  one  night,  and  the 
next  morning  it  is  turned  in  the  vat  and  continues  till 
the  succeeding  morning,  and  is  taken  out  and  placed  on 
the  dairy  shelf;  where  they  are  turned  every  day  or 
every  other  day,  as  the  weather  may  be.  If  it  is  hot 
and  dry,  the  windows  and  door  are  kept  shut,  but  if 
wet  or  moist,  the  door  and  windows  are  kept  open  night 
and  day. 

FRUIT    TREES 

There  is  probably  no  part  of  rural  economy,  observes 
Mr.  Coxe^  which  combines  in  so  great  a  degree  the 
agreeable  occupation  of  the  mind  with  active  employ- 
ment, as  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees,  with  the  other 
branches  of  an  extensive  orchard  establishment :  to  the 
man  of  wealth  and  leisure,  it  offers  the  means  of  im- 
proving and  adorning  his  estate  ;  the  scientific  cultivator 
will  find  in  it  inexhaustible  sources  of  intellectual  occu- 
pation ;  while  the  practical  farmer,  whose  views  are 
limited  to  objects  of  certain  profit,  will  be  amply  remu- 
nerated for  every  expenditure  of  labour  or  money,  by 
the  immediate  comfort,  and  eventual  emolument,  which 
will  be  derived  from  such  an  establishment. 

As  nothing,  says  Mr.  Robbins,  is  more  delicious,  so 
nothing  is  more  wholesome,  than  well  ripened  fruit.  It 
is  its  deliciousnei.3  that  makes  its  danger.  It  tempts  to 
excess  in  eating,  and  to  eating  it,  unripe.  But  taken  in 
moderation,  it  is  as  wholesome  to  the  constitution,  as  it  is 
delicious  to  the  palate.  Fruit  seems  to  be  the  favourite  food 
of  nature.  All  animals  devour  it  with  eagerness.  There 
is  no  luxury  of  the  unadulterated  palate  so  much  covet- 
ed ;  and  in  places  where  nature  has  denied  the  produc- 
tion, no  cost  in  forcing  it  is  considered  too  great.  Be- 
sides the  unfailing  market,  that  may  be  expected  for  the 
fruit,  there  is  the  farm,  where  so  much  is  wanted  for 
family  consumption,  where    it    contributes    so  m.uch  to 


FRUIT   TP.nES.  185 

the  pleasure  of  the  family  tabic,  and  vv'here  it  is  manu- 
factured into  so  many  liquors  ;  the  cider,  the  perry,  the 
wines,  &c.  both  for  fannily  consumption,  and  the  market ; 
so  that  a  few  acres  of  fruit  become  a  source  of  more 
revenue,  than  the  whole  farm  besides.  Nothing",  in  ag- 
ricuiture,  gives  so  much  value  to  the  land  it  occupies, 
as  a  good  fruit  tree.  In  many  ins  ranees,  it  adds  many 
hundred  per  cent,  to  its  value.  The  original  cost  is  a 
mere  nothing,  even  if  the  3'oimg  tree  be  purchased. 
But  if  it  be  raised,  and  formed,  as  it  may  be,  a  little  la- 
bour procures  it.  The  time,  it  requires  to  come  to 
a  state  of  bearing,  ought  to  be  no  objection  ;  for  in  the 
mean  time  the  land  may  be  cropped,  and  the  tree  will 
be  the  better  for  the  tillage.  Its  growth  and  maturity 
will  be  perceptibly  hastened.  The  new  value  begins 
with  its  plantation,  and  grows  with  its  growth.  Notwith- 
standing, these  advantages,  and  the  ir.ntije  ^sue 
fruit  trees,  it  is  truly  said  by  Dr.  Tliacher^  of  Massa- 
chusetts, io  his  Orchardist  that  their  cultivation  has  re- 
ceived but  inadequate  attention  from  the  farmers  of  our 
country.  It  must  be  confessed,  as  a  notorious  truth, 
that  an  orchard,  planted  and  cultivated  in  the  most  ad- 
vantageous manner  in  point  of  beauty,  profit,  and  con- 
venience, is  scarcel}^  to  be  found.  The  most  palpable 
neglect  prevails  in  respect  of  proper  pruning,  cleaning-, 
and  manuring  round  the  roots  of  trees,  and  of  perpetu- 
ating choice  fruit,  by  engrafting.  Old  orchards  are,  ia 
general,  in  a  state  of  rapid  decay  ;  and  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  valuable  and  thrifty  trees  exposed  to  the 
depredations  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and  their  loilage  an- 
noyed by  catterpillars  and  other  destructive  insects.  In 
fact,  we  know  of  no  branch  of  agriculture  so  unaccount- 
ably and  so  culpably  disregarded. 

Every  thing  depends  upon  care,  enlightened  care  ia 
securing,  training,  and  forming  the  tree  in  the  first  place  ; 
and  then  on  its  subsequent  management.  It  is  this  which 
is  to  ensure  its  vigor  and  constant  fertility.  Men  often 
object  to  planting  fruit  trees  and  nurseries,  on  the  plea 
that  they  may  never  live  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  them. 
Such  an  objection  is  mercenary  and  selfisii,  and  betray* 
an  ignorance,  or  disregard,  of  the  obligations  we  all 
owe  to  posterity  and  to  patriotism.  For  the  well-being 
and  comlbrt  of  future  generations,  all  good  minds  have 
17 


186  APPLK    TREE. 

feelings  of  sympathy ;  and  the  planting  and  protecfloo 
of  orchards  has  been  considered,  by  every  age,  as  a  ' 
kind  of  indispensable  duty.  That  one  may  plant  the 
tree,  and  that  another,  to  come  after  him,  may  enjoy  the 
ffuit,  ought  to  occasion  no  hesitation.  Every  one  hopes 
to  leave  value  to  his  children  or  relations.  The  shape 
is  of  no  material  consequence,  whether  it  be  in  a  grow- 
ing tree,  or  in  one  grown.  If  at  the  verge  of  life  he 
plant — he  adds  so  much  to  the  value  of  the  land,  for 
the  benefit  of  his  heir.  But  these  objections,  can  be 
felt  only,  as  to  the  apple  and  the  pear,  which  come  late, 
but  last  long.  As  to  all  other  fruits,  he  that  plants  at 
almost  any  age,  may  hope  to  enjoy,  their  maturity  is  so 
earW. 

When  we  consider  the  various  manners  in  which  fruits 
are  beneficial ;  when  we  recollect  the  pleasure  they  af- 
ford to  the  senses,  and  the  chaste  and  innocent  occu- 
pation which  they  give  in  their  cultivation ;  when  we 
consider  the  reputation  which  they  communicate  to  a 
country  in  the  eye  of  strangers,  especially  as  affording 
a  test  of  its  climate  and  industry  ;  w^ien  we  remember 
the  importance  of  improving  the  beverage  which  they 
are  intended  to  supply  ;  when  it  is  calculated  under  how 
many  solid  forms  they  may  be  exported  (as  dried,  and 
preserved,  as  well  as  in  their  natural  state  ;)  and  lastly, 
when  we  reflect  upon  the  utility  of  giving  to  our  rural 
labours  a  thoughtful  turn,  which  is  the  best  substitute 
now  left,  after  having  quitted  our  primeval  state  ;  I  say, 
when  we  consider  these  things,  it  will  appear  that  the 
subject  of  fruits,  which  were  the  tirst  earthly  gift  cf 
Providence  to  man  in  his  more  favoured  state,  may  well 
continue  to  merit  both  the  public  and  individual  atten- 
tion. 

APPLE    TREE. 

Among  the  numerous  varieties  of  fruit-bearing  trees, 
cultivated  in  our  country,  the  apple  is,  coni'essedly,  of 
superior  importance  and  utility.  It  is  among  the  excel- 
lencies of  a  fruit  orchard,  that  it  affords  a  salubrious  bc- 
-jerage,  an  adequate  supply  of  which  would  have  a  ten- 
dency to  diminish,  if  not  supercede,  the  consumption  of 
ardent  spirits,  so  destructive  to  the  health  and  moral 
character  of  our  citizens. 


APPLE    TREE. 


IGT 


JYurseri/.  Ever}''  planter  ouirlit  to  raise  liis  own  trees, 
that  the  removal  may  be  easily  effected  without  the 
roots  becoming  dry,  that  the  tree  may  be  continued  in 
nearly  the  same  kind  of  soil  and  atmo«;phere  in  which  it 
originated  ;  and  that  there  may  be  no  hazard  respect- 
ing the  kind  of  fruit  intended  to  be  phmted.  The  first 
step  therefore,  tovvards  obtaining  a  good  orchard,  is  to 
create  a  good  nursery.  Respecting  tiie  soil  suitable  for 
a  nursery,  there  is  among  writers,  a  considerable  diver- 
sity of  opinion.  Some  think  it  the  better  plan,  to  make 
a  nursery  on  such  ground  as  is  but  illy  suited  to  the 
growth  of  the  trees  to  be  raised  ;  for,  by  afterwards 
placing  them  in  a  soil  that  is  natural  to  them,  they  will 
grow  more  thriftily  than  trees  raised  in  a  nursery  where 
the  soil  is  suitable  to  their  growth.  Others  are  of  opin- 
ion that  the  soil  should  be  rich,  tor  the  vigor  of  a  young 
tree,  say  they,  is  one  of  its  most  valuable  properties; 
no  cultivation  or  soil  will  effectually  overcome  the  want 
of  it;  trees  will  seldom  fail  even  when  removed  to  a 
soil  of  different  character  from  the  nursery  wherein 
tliey  were  raised,  if  they  have  the  benefit  of  good  cul- 
tivation and  good  soil ;  these  will  produce  a  correspon- 
dent effect  on  the  growth  of  the  tree  wherever  raised. 
This  is  a  subject,  on  which,  as  Sir  i?oger  de  Coverhj  says, 
much  may  be  said  on  both  sides  ;  the  deci?ion  of  which, 
with  that  of  several  such  cases  occurring  before,  we 
submit  to  the  umpirage  of  experiment. 

We  agree  with  a  late  writer  in  opinion,  that  the  soil 
ought  to  be  naturally  good,  for  at  least  one  full  spade 
deep,  or  if  more,  the  better;  that  a  loamy  soil,  of  a 
moderately  light  temperament  is  best,  and  that  it  cannot 
naturally  be  too  good.  It  is  very  wrong  to  enrich  nur- 
series with  dung^  particularly  until  it  is  very  old,  and 
almost  turned  into  earth.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  soil  should  be  exceedingly  rich,  nor  over  care- 
fully manured  :  a  medium  between  the  two  extremes 
is  best ;  such  as  any  good  substantial  garden-ground  ;  or 
good  mellow  pasture  land.  The  situation  most  favour- 
able, is  a  piece  of  level  ground,  neither  wet  nor  dry, 
free  from  stones,  in  an  open  situation,  where  fruit  trees 
have  not  lately  grown,  or  indeed  any  other  deep-rooted 
plants.  Let  the  ground  be  ploughed  very  deeply  early 
in  the  fall,  and  be   well   mellowed :  and  plant  ike  seeds 


188  APPLE    TREE. 

about  the  month  of  October.  Make  the  rows  three  and, 
a  half,  or  four  feet  apart,  and  plant  the  seeds  plentiful- 
ly with  or  without  the  pcnnace,  one  or  two  inches 
deep.  If  the  pomace  is  not  used  soon  alter  taking  it 
from  the  press,  it  must  be  spread  and  dried,  as  it  is  liable 
to  heat  and  destroy  the  seeds.  Those  seeds  that  are 
saved  eari}^  or  are  to  be  kept  through  the  winter  for 
spring-  sowing,  (which  some  prefer,)  should  be  preserv- 
ed from  air  in  dry  sand  :  Let  them  be  put  in  a  box  lay- 
er upon  layer,  covering  them  several  inches  with  sand. 
Soon  after  coming  up  they  are  to  be  thinned,  so  as  to 
stand  at  proper  distances,  (sny  four  or  five  inches  apai  t) 
and  the  ground  is  to  be  kept  hoed,  but  not  deep  near 
the  plants,  and  clear  of  weeds  and  grass.  After  they 
have  had  two  summer's  grov/th,  they  may  be  taken  up, 
grafted  near  the  root,  and  set  again  in  the  nursery,  at 
the  distance  of  about  a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet  apart 
in  the  rows ;  where  they  may  remain  until  sufficiently 
large  to  transplant  into  the  orchard — or  they  may  be 
engrafted  in  the  ground. 

The  cultivation  of  a  nursery  is  effected  By  ploughing 
and  harrowing,  each  operation  twice  or  thrice  in  the 
season,  with  ploughs  and  harrows  of  a  small  size,  in 
using  which,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  galling 
and  injuring  the  trees  The  plough  is  not  to  go  so  near 
the  rows  as  not  to  leave  some  ground  to  be  dug  with 
the  hoe.  The  earth  is  first  thrown  from  the  trees,  and 
then  towards  them,  and  the  ground  is  also  worked  with 
a  hoe  between  the  trees  to  destroy  the  weeds  ;  the 
.more  the  earth  is  stirred,  and  the  cleaner  the  ground  is 
kept,  the  faster  will  trees  grow  in  every  stage  of  their 
progress,  from  the  seedling  to  the  full  grown  tree. 

In  pruning  trees  in  the  nurser}"^,  care  should  be  used 
not  to  run  them  up  too  high  ;  this  weakens  the  stems, 
and  throv.s  the  growth  too  much  into  the  braiiches. — 
Tliey  must  be  pruned  gradually,  and  a  little  each  year. 
No  suckers  that  spring  up  from  the  roots  should  be  suf- 
i'ered  to  remain  ;  and  all  buds  should  be  speedily  rubbed 
oil",  which  would  make  branches  too  low  on  the  stems. 
This  attention  is  not  required  for  those  that  are  intend- 
ed as  stocks  to  engraft  on. 

Deep  snows  are  apt  to  bend  down  young  trees,  and 
»ake  them  crooked.     The  besst  remedy  for  this,  Is  to 


APPLE    TREE.  189 

idrive  dewn  stakes,  proportioned  to  the  height  of  the 
young'  trees,  and  tie  them  to  these  in  such  a  manner, 
that  the  bark  will  not  be  injured  by  the  string,  nor  by 
rubbing  against  the  stakes.  This  is  to  be  done  after 
grafting  them. 

Engrafting.  Miraturque  novas  frondes^  et  non  suet 
poma. — V^iRG. 

This  quotation  may  serve  at  least,  to  show  something 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  art  of  grafting:  in  which  Virgil 
represents  the  stock  or  tree  thus  altered,  as  astonished 
at  the  new  leaves^  and  apples  not  its  orsrn.  What  pity  that 
the  name  of  the  inventer  of  this  useful  art  should  have 
been  lost,  who  had  deserved  to  rank  high  among  the 
benefactors  of  mankind.  Grafting  was  known  long  be- 
fore the  time  of  Virgil,  having  been  mentioned  by 
Hesoid,  &c. 

Fruit  trees  bear  several  years  sooner  for  being  graft- 
ed or  innoculated.     In  the  choice  of  scions  for  grafting, 
the  first  essential  requisite  is,  that  they  are  of  the  same 
genus  and  natural  family  with  the  strck  which  is  to  be- 
come their  foster   parent.     Scions  from   a  winter  apple 
tree    should   not    be    grafted  on  a  summer   apple  stock, 
because  the  sap  in  the  summer  stock  is  liable  to  decline 
and  diminish  before    the    wiater  fruit  has    become  fully 
ripe.     It  is  next   important,   that   scions   be  taken  from 
trees  that  have  attained  to  the   maturity'  of  full  bearing. 
They  are  directed  to  be  cut  in  March,  just   before  the 
buds  begin  to  swell ;  and  in  order   to    preserve  them  in 
good    condition,  they  must    be  placed,    with  their  lower 
ends    in  the  ground,  in  some    dry  part  of  the  cellar  till 
wanted.  ^  But   somo    experienced   operators  prefer  cut- 
ting them  as  near  the  time  they  are  to  be    employed  as 
convenient.     Scions    should   always    be    taken  from  the 
extremities   of  the  most    thrifty  and  best  bearing  trees, 
and  of  the  last  year's  growth,  except    only  just  enough 
of  the  growth  of  the   year   before  to  fix  in  the  earth  to 
preserve    them    moist  until   they  are   to   be  used ;  and 
they  must  be  kept   at   full    length.     It  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  grafting  may  most  successfully  l?e  performed, 
by  allowing  the  stock  to  have  some  advantage  over  the 
graft  in  forwardness  of  vegetation.     If  grafts  are  to  be 
brought  from  any  considerable  distance,   tli<n'    ought  to 
be  paCxked  in  light  earth,  and  enclosed  in  mosi  or  damp 
straw. 

*17 


190  APPLE    TREE. 

The  most  proper  season  for  grafting",  in  out  climate. 
is  from  about  the  20th  of  March,  to  the  20th  of  May, 
though  the  operation  has  succeeded  well,  as  late  as  the 
lOih  of  June,  provided  the  scions  have  been  properly 
preserved.  It  is  always  most  successful,  however,  when 
done  at  the  period  that  the  buds  of  the  stocks  are  swell- 
ed, so  as  to  be  nearly  ready  to  burst  into  leaf:  this 
should  be  very  particularly  attended  to.  It  should  be 
observed,  as  a  ruie,  never  to  employ  suckers  from  old 
trees  as  stocks  for  grafts,  or  buds,  as  the}'  have  a  con- 
stant tendency  to  generate  suckers,  and  thereby  injure 
the  growth  of  the  trees. 

Grafting  can  be  performed  in  various  ways.  In  every 
method  it  should  be  a  general  rule  to  adjust  the  inner 
hark  of  the  stock  and  of  the  scion  in  close  contact,  and 
to  confine  them  precisely  in  (hat  situation.  As  cleft- 
g'rafti?ig  is  the  most  simple  and  certain  of  success,  and 
that  most  practised  in  New-England,  we  think  it  unne- 
cessarj'^  to  describe  any  other.  Cleft-grafting  is  done  on 
the  stocks  in  the  nursery,  or  on  the  small  limbs  of  trees. 
The  head  of  the  stock  or  branch  being  carefully  cut  off 
in  a  sloping  direction,  a  perpendicular  cleft  or  slit  is  to 
be  made,  about  two  inches  deep,  with  a  knife  or  chisel, 
towards  the  back  of  the  slope,  into  which  a  wedge  is  to 
be  driven,  in  order  to  keep  it  open  for  the  admission  of 
the  scion.  The  latter  must  now  be  cut  in  a  perpendi- 
cular direction,  and  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  leaving  the 
side  of  the  graft,  which  is  to  be  outside,  the  thickest,  so 
as  to  fit  the  incision  in  the  stock.  As  soon  as  it  is  pre- 
pared, it  should  be  placed  in  the  cleft  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  inner  bark  of  both  the  stock  and  scion  may 
meet  exactly  together.  In  making  the  cleft,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  injure  the  pith,  or  to  start  the  bark 
from  the  stock,  the  scion  being  inserted  in  the  sap  wood 
of  the  stock  or  bracch.  When  not  grafted  within  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  the  whole  must  be  daubed  with  a 
quantity  of  stitT  loam  worked  fine  and  mixed  with  chop- 
ped hay  or  coarse  horse-dung.  This  must  be  applied 
closely  round  the  parts,  tapering  at  both  ends  ;  particu- 
lar care  being  taken  not  to  move  the  graft.  This  mor- 
tar must  be  surrounded  with  a  winding  of  tow  or  old 
cloths.  The  middle  part  of  the  scion  is  best.  The 
grafts  should  be  four  or  five  inches  long,  with  two  or 


APPLE    TRBE.  191 

three  buds  to  eacli.     A  good  substitute  for  the  above 
application   is   a  composition  of  equal   pa:t3    of  tallow, 
bees-wax  and   rosin,   softened    by  heat,    and    spread  on 
strips  of  linen  or  paper,  six  inches  long,   and  about  two 
inches  wide  ;  one  of  these  strips  must  be  wrapped  round 
each  stock,  so  as  completely  to  cover  the  fissure  at  the 
sides  and  in  the  end.     Instead  of  taking  the  young  trees 
up  to  engraft  them,  it  is   recommended  by  many  to  re- 
move the    earth  about  an  inch  from  the  stocks,  which 
can  then  be  sawed  off,  so  as    to    leave    the    top    of  the 
stump  rather   below  the    level   of   the  ground — ingraft 
them,  and  then  draw   up   the   earth  so  as  to  cover  the 
tops   of  the   stocks  one  or  two   inches ;  leaving  one  or 
two  buds  of  each  scion  exposed — no  comp  sition  is  ne- 
cessary in  this   operation,  the   covering  of  earth   suffi- 
ciently protects    the   scions   from  the  air  and  sun.     But 
as  it  is  necessary  that  the  trees  should  stand  at  a  greater 
distance    from  each  other  after  being  engrafted,  and   as 
it  is  considered  advantageous  to  remove   young  trees  in 
the    nursery,  previous   to  their  f-nal  removal  to  the  or- 
chard,   that    the    tap   root  and    latteral    roots,   may  be 
shortened,  so  as  to  induce  them  to  form  a  regular  glo- 
bular root,  sufhcientlj'^   small  to  be  removed  with  their 
plants;  we  believe  it  will  be  best  to  take  up  the  young 
trees,  engraft  them,  cut  off  the  extremities  of  the  longer 
roots,  and  all  the  small  fibrous  roots,  if  out  of  the  ground 
any  length  of  time,  set  them  out  at  proper  distances  in 
the  rows,  and   draw   the   earth  around  the  grafts  as  be- 
fore mentioned. 

Young  trees  properly  pruned  in  the  nursery,  will,  it 
u  said,  come  to  bearing  sooner,  and  continue  in  vigour 
for  nearly  double  the  common  time.  All  superfluous  or 
rambling  branches  should  be  taken  off  annually,  and  on- 
ly three  or  tour  leading  shoots  be  left  to  every  head. 

That  new  varieties  of  valuable  fruit  may  be  obtained, 
it  is  best  to  reserve  some  of  the  most  promising  trees 
in  the  nursery,  which  can  sometimes  be  determined  by 
the  large,  thick  and  woolly  appearance  of  their  leaves  ; 
these  should  be  transplanted  into  the  orchard  in  their 
natural  state,  and  if  they  prove  poor  can  be  immediate- . 
ly  engrafted.  When  trees  of  six  or  eight  years  old  are 
giafted,  thels'gowth  will  not  be  retarded  more  than  two 
or  three  years,  frequently  not  one.     When   a  tree  of 


192  APPLE   TREE. 

consiclerabie  size  is  grafted,  only  a  part  of  the  bmnche* 
must  be  cut  away  at  a  time,  to  prevent  it  from  being" 
injured.  When  grafts  have  acquired  some  inches  in 
length,  it  may  be  well  to  rub  off  all  the  buds  which 
have  pushed  out  below  them  on  the  stem,  and  perhapf 
a  few  of  those  which  have  appeared  above  them,  and  if 
the  gratts  themselves  put  out  any  latteral  shoots,  spare 
them  till  the  succeeding  year,  when  you  are  called  to 
re-graft  such  as  have  failed.  In  pastures  v/here  apple 
trees  are  scattered  about,  it  is  best  to  graft  them  with 
sweet  apples,  which  will  injure  the  cows  less  than  such 
as  are  sour ;  and  large  sweetings  will  not  be  so  likely 
to  choak  them  as  smaller  apples. 

Engrafted  af>ple  trees  sometimes  bear  fruit  w^hen  two 
or  three  years  old  ;  but  if  this  premature  produce  he 
permitted,  the  prolific  powers  will  be  greatly  impaired. 
If,  therefore,  the  blossoms  appear  abundant,  the  fruit 
should  be  taken  off  as  soon  as  formed,  leaving  only  four 
or  five  to  ascertain  the  kind.  By  permitting  trees  to 
bear  too  plentifully  when  young,  they  are  more  apt,  it 
is  said,  to  be  alternate  bearers. 

The  choicest  kinds  of  fruit  must  be  selected  for  mak- 
ing the  best  cider.  Trees  may  be  found  which  will 
bear  excellent  fruit  for  this  purpose,  and  which,  when 
grown  to  good  size,  will  each  yield,  yearly,  from  twen- 
ty to  thirty  bushels,  or  more  ;  which  is  perhaps  five 
times  the  quantity  that  the  common  sort  of  such  tr^.es 
usually  bear.  This  is  surely  a  sufficient  inducement  to 
search  for  the  most  valuable  fruit-trees,  when  about  to 
collect  scions  to  engraft  trees  for  an  orchard,  instead  of 
planting  in  the  common  way, 

Soil^  Situation  and  Aspect.  With  respect  to  soil,  it 
should  be  of  a  deep  loamy  nature,  neither  too  wet  or 
heavy,  nor  too  light  or  dry.  The  sub-soil  has  a  power- 
ful influence  on  the  health  and  prosperity  of  trees.  If 
this  be  rock,  or  what  is  called  hard  pan,  (whatever  be 
the  surface,)  the  tree  and  its  fruits  are  mucb  deteri- 
orated— nor  will  the  remedy  sometimes  resorted  to  of 
cutting  off  the  tap-root,  and  having  the  tree  to  subsist 
by  those  wliich  are  merely  latteral,  be  sufficient. 

Good  cultivation,  and  a  system  of  high  manuring,  will 
always  remunerate  the  proprietor  of  an  orchard,  ex- 
cept it  be  planted  on  a  qiiick-sand,  or  a  cold-clay ;  in 
such  soils,  no  mana^^ement  can  prevent  an  early  decay. 


APPLE    TREE. 


19: 


As  to  situation  and  aspect,  that  is  not  of  much  impor- 
tance, especially  for  apple,  pear  and  other  hardy  fruit 
trees  ;  for  you  will  find  these  growing  and  bearing  froit 
in  the  greatest  perfection,  in  every  aspect  where  the 
soil  is  suitable,  and  proper  care  taken  of  the  trees. — 
But  a  moderately  low  situation,  iVee  from  wet,  may  be 
more  eligible  than  an  elevated  ground,  as  being  less  ex- 
posed to  tempestuous  winds;  a  gentle  declivity  is  the 
most  desirable,  it  will  be  most  advisable  for  the  far- 
mer to  make  use  of  uneven  grounds,  and  let  those  which 
are  level  be  reserved  for  the  plough. 

Transplanting.  The  proper  season  for  planting,  will 
be  found  to  depend  on  a  variety  of  circumstances — in 
light  soils,  fhe  winter  settles  the  earth  round  the  roots, 
and  best  secures  them  against  the  drought  of  the  follow- 
ing season — and  it  is  a  time  of  leisure  to  the  farmer. 
In  stiif  or  wet  soils,  spring  planting  is  considered  best. 
If  transplanted  in  the  fall,  it  should  be  done  in  October, 
or  as  soon  as  the  foilage  falls  oft* ;  if  in  the  spring,  as 
soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  or  rather  a  little  before. 

The  distance  between  trees  should  be  such  as  to  pre- 
Tent  the  extreme  branches  from  locking  into  each  other 
when  attained  to  full  maturit}'^  of  growth.  We  are  not 
to  expect  that  the  quantity  of  fruit  will  be  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  trees  in  an  orchard ;  for  a  few 
trees  of  large  size  will  produce  more  and  better  fruit, 
than  six  or  eight  times  the  number  of  those  v/hich  grow 
near  and  crowd  one  another.  The  most  generally  ap- 
proved distance  is  forty  feet. 

To  remove  a  ^ree,  though  young,  is  a  severe  test ; 
and,  therefore,  every  thing  should  be  done  to  render 
the  shock  as  little  injurious  as  possible.  It  is  recom- 
mended to  prepare  the  ground  with  diligence  before  the 
trees  are  planted  ;  by  deep  ploughing,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  such  hoed  crops  as  will  not  exhaust  the  soli. 
The  holes  should  be  dug  a  considerable  time  before  the 
trees  are  planted  ;  if  the  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  the 
spring  the  holes  should  be  dugin  the  fnll.  They  should 
be  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  spade  must  be 
carried  to  the  full  depth  of  the  soil ;  and  if  it  be  gravel- 
ly, a  considerable  portion  of  this  should  be  removed, 
and  its  place  supplied  by  a  due  quantity  of  rich  mould. 
In  digging  the  holes,  throw  the   top  of  the  earth  into  a 


194 


APPLE    TRF.E. 


hcnp  bj  itself,  and  ilie  earth  from  beneath  in  another. 
The  trees  to  be  planted  should  be  as  young- as  circum- 
stances will  allow.  In  taking*  them  up,  the  roots  should 
be  preserved  of  the  full  length,  if  possible  ;  the  surface 
earth  should  be  removed,  and  the  running'  roots  care- 
fully traced  and  raised.  If  they  must  be  cut,  let  it  be 
done  with  a  sharp  instrument.  The  tap  root,  may  be 
shorTSned  to  the  leng-th  of  about  one  foot,  and  all  brok- 
en or  bruised  parts  should  be  removed.  The  small 
matted  fibres  should  be  cut  off,  as  they  are  apt  to  mould 
and  deca}^,  and  prevent  new  ones  from  shooting.  This 
need  not  be  done,  however,  unless  the  tree  has  been 
out  of  ground  seme  time.  Lay  some  of  the^  fine  mould 
six  inches  deep  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  place  the 
roots  upon  this,  in  their  natural  order,  and  hold  the  tree 
perfectly  upright,  and  the  same  side  to  the  sun  as  it 
.stood  before,  while  more  fine  rich  earth  is  put  round 
the  roots.  Sway  the  tree  backward  and  forvvard  a  lit- 
tle, and  give  it  a  gentle  lift  and  shake,  so  that  the  finG 
earth  may  find  its  way  amongst  the  roots  and  leave  not 
the  smallest  cavity.  Every  root  should  be  closely 
touched  by  the  earth  in  every  part.  When  all  the 
roots  are  covered  with  this  fine  earth,  and  the  tree 
stands  about  as  high  with  regard  to  the  level  of  the 
ground  as  it  did  in  the  place  where  it  before  stood,  al- 
lowing about  three  inches  for  sinking,  fill  up  the  rest  of 
the  hole  with  common  earth,  and  when  you  have  about 
filled  it,  tread  the  earth  that  you  put  in,  but  not  very 
hard.  Put  on  the  rest  of  the  earth,  and  leave  the  sur- 
face pcriectly  smooth.  Trees  must  not  be  watered,  it 
sinks  rapidly  down,  makes  cavities  amongst  the  roots, 
and  is  very  injtirioas.  But  it  is  useful  to  place  a  small 
quantity  of  old  liay  or  straw  around  them,  to  prevent 
the  sun  from  taking  up  too  much  of  the  moisture,  and 
to  keep  the  ground  from  becoming  dry  and  hard.  This 
should  be  removed  before  snow  falls,  lest  it  harbor 
mice.  Or  small  stones  may  be  laid  on  the  ground  three 
feet  around  the  tree.  During  the  time  of  transplant- 
ing, the  roots  should  be  out  of  ground  as  short  a  time  as 
possible  ;  and  should  by  no  means  be  permitted  to  get 
dry,  if  it  can  be  avoided;  for,  thoug-h  some  trees  will 
live  after  having  been  a  long  while  out  of  ground,  the 
•shorter   the   time   out  of  ground,  the  sooner  the    roots 


APPLE   TRfiE.  ,  195 

strike ;  and,  if  the  roots  should  get  dry,  thev  ought  to 
be  soaked  in  rain  or  pond  water,  for  half  a  day  before 
the  tree  be  planted.  If  the  head  of  the  tree  is  large  in 
proportion  to  the  root,  it  must  be  thinned  a  little  to 
prevent  it  from  being  swayed  about  by  the  wind.  (But 
the  tops  of  the  young  trees  must  not  be  shortened,  lest 
they  produce  a  growth  of  suckers.)  Even  when  prun- 
ed, it  will  be  exposed  to  be  loosened  by  this  cause,  and 
must  be  kept  steady  by  a  stake  ;  but  it  must  not  be 
fastened  to  a  stake,  until  rain  has  come  to  settle  the 
ground  ;  for,  such  fastening  would  prevent  it  from  sink- 
ing with  tiie  earth  ;  the  earth  would  sink  from  it,  and 
leave  cavities  about  the  roots.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  tree  from  being  rubbed  by  the  stake.  It  is 
Tery  useful  to  lay  round  the  trees,  a  compost  made  of 
river-mud,  wood  ashes,  and  a  small  portion  of  lime,  at 
the  rate  of  about  a  commoQ  wagon  load  for  every  tea 
trees. 

Should  the  earth  be  rather  shallow,  so  that  the  roots 
cannot  be  sufficiently  cove.-ed  with  good  soil,  a  quantify 
must  be  brought  from  a  distance  to  bank  the  roots  around 
with  ;  for  there  is  no  alternative,  between  planting  them 
in  the  good  soil,  where  their  roots  can  take  a  wide  ex- 
tended horizontal  direction,  and  lie  within  the  reach  of 
the  genial  influence  of  heat,  rain,  dew  and  air,  and  that 
of  an  untimely  end,  if  planted  too  deep.  One  or  two 
loads  of  mud  from  meadows  or  ditch  banks,  laid  round 
each  tree,  on  a  light  soil,  and  ploughed  the  next  spring, 
where  the  mud  has  become  pulverized,  has  been  found 
highly  usoiul. 

If  a  far.'ner  has  not  an  eligible  situation  for  a  regular 
orchard,  he  can  plant  trees  in  various  parts  of  the  farm, 
not  otherwise  occupied,  as  on  the  borders  and  corners 
of  fields  contiguous  to  roads,  lanes,  &,c.  In  some  instan- 
ces it  is  deemed  a  preferable  method  to  set  trees  on 
the  sides 'of  a  square  tield,  the  centre  of  which  is  left 
open  for  pasture  or  tillage. 

Mr.  Coxe^  who  is  considered  the  most  experienced 
orcharnist  in  the  United  States,  from  experiment,  is 
satisfied  with  the  soundness  of  the  prevailing  opinion, 
agjiinst  the  sites  of  old  orchards  for  new  plantations. 
This  remark  however,  he  says,  ought  not  to  be  applied 
to  the  spots  where  young   trees,  or   those  even  of  mi4- 


196  APPLE    TREE. 

ling-  ag-e,  have  grown — in  filling  up  vacancies  in  growing 
orcliards,  the  deterioration  of  soil  produced  by  the 
growth  of  a  tree  lor  tiiteen  or  twenty  years,  cannot  be 
sufficient  to  injure  one  replanted  in  the  sanie  spot — on 
the  contrary,  the  digging  deep,  and  manuring  the  earth 
for  the  first  tree,  olten  renders  the  spot  mere  eligible 
for  a  second,  or  third. 

PioKgking.  The  looser  the  ground  is  kept  for  the 
first,  and  indeed  lor  the  several  succeeding  years,  pro- 
vided the  plough  does  not  go  so  deep  as  to  hurt  the 
roots,  the  more  certain  and  the  more  vigorous  will  be 
the  growth  of  the  orchard.  All  fallow  crops  are  pre- 
ferable to  oats  or  barley  ;  and  these  are  more  favour- 
able than  winter  grain  :  buckwheat  is  one  of  the  best 
crops.  Clover  or  any  other  deeply  rooted  grass,  is  con- 
sidered injurious,  unless  dressed  with  plaster,  or  fed  off 
when  young.  In  cultivating  an  orchard,  regard  should 
he  had  to  such  a  rotation  of  crops,  and  manuring,  as  will 
prevent  the  ground  from  being  impoverished.  Where 
grass  or  grain  are  cultivated,  says  Mr.  Coxe^  the  ground 
should  he  kept  open  by  diging  the  earth  about  three 
f&et  round  each  tree  :  A  man  will  dig  round  a  hundred 
trees  in  a  day ;  or  four  or  five  furrows  can  be  ploughed 
on  each  side  nf  a  row.  When  the  shade  of  the  trees, 
and  the  extension  of  their  roots,  impede  the  growth  of 
crops  ;  and  the  roots  and  bark  are  liable  to  be  injured 
by  ploughing,  it  had  better  be  discontinued.  The  grass^ 
however,  must  be  kept  away  by  digging  round  the  trees, 
and  suitable  manures  applied.  Let  them  be  kept  as 
pastures  for  calves  and  swine.  Neat  cattle  must  not  be 
admilted,  unless  they  are  guarded  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  their  eating  the  lower  branches,  or  rubbing 
against  them. 

Manuring..  It  has  been  found  by  experience,  that 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  oic.  attain  to  their  highest  per- 
fection only  when  the  soil  about  the  roots  is  kept  open, 
and  frequently  manured.  Among  various  substances 
wl  ich  have  been  found  suitable  manures  for  trees,  the 
following  may  be  enumerated  : — horns,  hoofs,  bones, 
where  reduced  to  fragments  or  powder,  leather,  shells, 
hair,  wool,  woollen  rags,  tanner's  bark,  refuse  flax, 
sea  weed,  swamp  or  pond  mud,  and  ashes,  chip  or 
compost  manure,  soap-suds,  the  liquid  substance  whicli 


APPLE    TREE.  197 

13  left  nt  the  bottom  of  stercoraries  and  barn  yards  ;  and 
in  short  almost  all  manures  which  do  not  harbor  insects. 
(Fresh  stable  manure  is  therefore  improper.)  These 
substances  applied  annually,  or  once  in  two  years,  will 
produce  surprising  effects,  and  the  farmer  will  be  am- 
ply compensated.  Manuring,  however  must  not  be  car- 
ried to  excess,  as  too  great  a  stimulus  applied  to  trees, 
facilitates  the  luxurient  growth  of  wood,  and  renders  the 
branches  less  productive  of  fruit. 

Pruning.  There  is  no  branch  of  the  management  of 
orchards  less  understood,  or  more  unskilfully  perform- 
ed, than  the  operation  of  prunmg.  When  it  is  judic- 
iously done,  fruit  trees,  it  is  said,  will  come  into  bear- 
ing sooner,  produce  more  abundantly,  and  continue  in 
vigour  for  nearly  double  the  common  age.  When  trees 
are  properly  pruned  in  the  nursery,  there  will  be  less 
employment  for  the  pruning  knife  at  all  future  periods  ; 
it  will  nevertheless  be  indispensably  necessary  to  re- 
trench superfluous  shoots  and  branches  in  every  succes- 
sive year  of  their  existence.  The  most  proper  season 
for  pruning,  is  when  the  sap  is  in  active  motion.  If 
large  Ifmbs  are  lopped  off,  several  inches  from  the 
trunk,  before  this  time,  the  fresh  bark  round  the  wood 
becomes  dry,  large  cavities  are  formed,  which  rapidly 
extend  towards  the  trunk  and  heart,  and  the  tree  is  soon 
deprived  of  its  vigor.  In  New-England  the  sap  com- 
mences its  circulation  about  the  10th  of  April.  From 
this  period  to  about  the  first  of  May  the  pruning  should 
be  accomplished.  If  the  work  is  done  much  later  than 
this,  the  bark  is  apt  to  peel,  which  is  very  injurious. 
For  performing  the  work,  a  saw,  chisel,  and  pruning 
knife,  are  necessary.  Various  substances  are  recom- 
mended to  apply  to  the  wounded  parts,  to  defend  against 
wet,  cold  air,  or  the  scorching  sun.  Fresh  cow  dung 
tied  on  with  a  cloth  ;  the  composition  used  for  grafting ; 
tar  or  thick  paint ;  or  an  ointment  composed  of  rosin, 
bees-wax,  and  turpentine  :  have  all  been  found  good. 
Large  limbs  should  not  be  cut  close  to  the  main  trunk  of 
a  full  grown  tree,  nor  indeed  a  branch,  which  is  too 
large  at  the  place  of  excision  to  close  over  again,  as  it 
may  destroy  the  tree,  by  opening  an  avenue  to  the  air 
and  water,  which  induce  rottenness,  and,  in  course  of 
18 


198  APPLE    TREE. 

time,  the  limb  or  trunk  becomes    hollow,  frequently  to 
the  roots.     Always    prune   at  a  fork,    and    remove   the 
lower  branch,   that  the   wound    may   be   on  the    lower 
side.     Care  must  be  taken  not   to   cut   away   too   many 
large  limbs  at  a  time.     All    large    limbs    should   be  cut 
first  at  some  distance  from  the  place  where  they  are  to 
be  pruned,  to  prevent  the  weight  from  peeling  the  bark  : 
the  bark  on  the  lower    side   should  be    cut    through  to 
prevent    the  same    accident.     In  every    instance,   after 
sawing  off   the  branch,   let  the  bark  and    edges    of  the 
stump   be   pared  close   and  smooth  with   a  sharp  knife, 
(a  drawing  knife  will  be  found  convenient,)  and  immedi- 
ately apply  the  composition  so  as   to   cover  the   whole 
surface  of  the  wound.     All  dead  limbs  should  be  cut  off 
close  to  the  trunk.     Such  branches  as  intersect  or  cross 
each  other,  ought  to  be  removed,  and  all  others  cleared 
of  suckers  to  their  extremities.     Such  branches  as  have 
received    any    material   injury   ought  to   be    removed. 
Never  suffer  a  sucker  to  remain  near  the  root ;  nor  by 
any  means  upon  the  body,  which   is  not  intended  to  be 
permanent.     Those  vigorous  young  shoots,  which  otlen 
spring  from  old  arms,  near  the  trunk,  and  incline  to  grow 
up  into  the  head,  must  be  annually  extirpated,  lest  they 
fill  the  tree  with  too  much  wood.     The    outer    surface 
only  is  able  to  mature  fruit  properly.     Every  inward  and 
every  underling  branch  ought  therefore  to  be  removed. 
Young  trees  if  hide  bound,  should  be  relieved  by  cutting 
the  bark  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  from  the  top  to   the 
bottom  of  the  stem. 

Canker.  This  disease  occasions  the  bark  of  apple 
trees  to  grow  rough  and  scabby,  and  turns  the  wood  af- 
fected to  a  rusty  brown  colour  ;  and  if  no  remedy  be  ap-. 
plied,  will  in  time  kill  the  tree.  Mr.  Forsyth  directs  all 
the  diseased  parts  to  be  cut  out  with  a  sharp  instrument. 
The  same  kind  of  compositions  used  for  pruning  and  en- 
grafting must  then  be  applied. 

Moss  and  Scaly  bark.  Fruit  trees  suffer  much  injury 
from  these.  They  can  be  readily  removed,  by  rubbing 
the  trees  in  damp  weather  with  a  hoe,  or  the  back  of  a 
knife.  Good  cultivation  generally  prevents  the  growth 
of  moss.  Whitewashing  the  stem,  not  only  cleanses  the 
tree  of  moss,  hut  destroys  many  kinds  of  insects  very 
injurious  to  fruit  trees. 


APPLE    TREE.  199 

Mr.  Forsyth,  recommends  washing  trees  annually  with 
the  tbllovving-  mixture,  which  he  says  will  destroy  the 
eg-gs  of  insects,  prevent  moss  from  growing,  and  have 
the  same  ellect  upon  trees  as  a  top  dressing  has  upon 
grass  land. 

Mix  fresh  cow-dung  with  urine  and  soap-suds,  and 
with  this  mixture  wash  over  the  stems  and  branches  of 
tlie  trees,  as  a  white-washer  would  wash  the  walls  of  a 
room  ;  taking  care  to  cut  off  all  the  cankery  parts,  and 
to  scrape  off  all  the  moss,  before  it  is  laid  on.  In  the 
course  of  the  season,  he  says,  you  will  see  a  line  new 
bark  coming  on. 

Canker  -worm.  The  female  of  this  insect  comes  out 
of  the  ground  very  early  in  the  spring-,  and  ascemls  the 
tree  to  deposit  her  eggs,  which  she  does  in  suitable 
places  in  the  bark,  where  they  are  brought  forth,  and 
the  young  brood  live  on  the  leaves  of  the  tree.  Several 
methods  for  subduing  them  have  been  tried  with  some 
degree  of  success.  1.  Tarring.  This  must  be  com- 
menced as  soon  as  the  ground  is  bare  of  snow  ;  (which  is, 
in  some  years,  as  early  as  February  ;)  that  the  hrst  thaw- 
ing of  the  ground  may  not  happen  before  the  trees  are 
prepared.  A  strip  of  canvass,  or  linen,  three  inches 
wide,  should  be  put  round  the  tree,  having  first  tilled 
crevices  of  the  bark  with  clay  mortar ;  draw  it  close  and 
fasten  the  ends  strong.  A  thumb-rope  of  tow  should  be 
tied  round  the  lower  edge  of  the  strip  to  prevent  the 
tar  from  running  down  on  the  bark  and  injuring  the  tree. 
Let  the  strips  be  plentifully  smeared  with  cold  tar,  of  a 
proper  consistence,  to  be  put  on  with  a  brush.  It  must 
be  renewed  once  a  day  without  fail.  The  insects  are 
so  amazingly  prolific,  that  if  ever  so  few  of  them  get 
up,  a  tree  is  ruined,  at  least  tor  the  ensuing  season.  The 
best  time  is  soon  after  sun-set,  because  the  insects  pass 
up  in  the  evening,  and  the  tar  will  not  harden  so  much 
in  the  night.  This  work  must  be  continued  with  care, 
generally,  till  the  last  of  May.  2.  Mr.  JVichobnn  recom- 
mends  to  scrape  off  the  shagg  bark  to  the  width  of  2  or 
3  inches  ;  then  make  a  mixture  of  oil,  or  blubber,  with 
suitable  proportions  of  sulphur  and  Scotch  snuff;  and 
lay  this  on  with  a  brush,  forming  a  ring  an  inch  or  two 
wide  ;  and   no   insect  will  ever  attempt  to  pass  this  bar- 


SOd  APPLfi   TRER. 

I'ier  as  long  as  the  composition  has  any  consi<^erab]e 
moisture  left  in  it.  Let  it  be  repeated  when  it  inclines 
to  hatden;  though  perhaps  this  is  not  necessary.  3. 
The  pasturing  of'  svvine  in  an  orchard  in  the  tail  and 
spring  has  been  found  very  servicable.  These  animals 
appear  to  possess  a  natur.il  instinct  directing  to  search 
for  vermin  and  insects,  which  conceal  themselves  in  the 
earth.  4.  The  late  Air.  Peck,  of  Massachusetts,  recom- 
mends as  an  effectual  remedy,  turning  up  the  ground 
Gurefully  in  October,  as  far  as  the  branches  of  a  tree 
extend,  to  half  a  spade's  depth,  or  five  inches,  so  as  com- 
pletely»to  invest  the  surface.  Break  the  clods,  smooth 
the  surface  with  a  rake,  and  pass  a  heavy  roller  over 
it,  eo  as  to  make  it  very  hard,  and  without  cracks.  If 
the  frost  should  heave  and  crack  the  smooth  surface  in 
the  winter,  it  must  be  smoothed  and  hardened  again  in 
March.  This  will  be  found  less  expensive  than  the  long 
course  of  tarring.  5.  Dr.  Thacher  thinks  it  highly  prob- 
able, that  a  quantity  of  sea-weed  pressed  round  the 
trunks  of  fruit  trees,  extending  3  or  4  feet,  would  prove 
a  remedy,  by  forming  a  compact  substance,  through 
which  the  canker  moth  and  worm  would  not  penetrate. 
6.  Mr.  Kenrick^  of  Massachusetts,  proposes  to  destroy 
canker  worms  by  the  following  method :  From  anytime 
in  June,  after  the  worms  have  entirely  disappeared,  un- 
til the  20th  of  October,  let  the  whole  of  the  soil  sur- 
rounding the  trees,  to  the  extent  of  4  feet,  be  dug  up 
and  carted  away  to  a  considerable  distance  ;  and  let  there 
be  returned  an  equal  quantity  of  compost,  or  rich  earth, 
intermixed  with  manure.  By  this  operation,  the  farmer, 
besides  exterminating  the  worms,  promotes  the  growth 
and  fruitfulness  of  his  trees,  and  defends  them  against 
the  moles.  The  author  of  the  Farmer''s  Assistant  ob- 
serves, that,  by  taking  the  earth  away  from  the  roots  of 
the  trees,  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  destroying  what- 
ever may  appear  to  be  the  abode  of  any  insects ;  and 
then  returning  the  earth  back,  mixed  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  sulphur,  sprinkling  some  of  this  upon  the  surface, 
is,  he  believes,  the  most  effectual  methed  to  keep  every 
kind  of  insect  from  ascending.  7.  Mr.  Kiiapp.,  of  Boston, 
has  been  very  successful  in  the  application  of  lime,  as 
/oUows  :     Dig  the  turf,  lay  the  ground  smooth,   and  ap- 


APPLE   TREE.  201 

ply  the  lime  in  the  fall.  Take  air-slacked  lime,  strew  it 
about  an  inch  thick,  to  the  extent  of  2  or  3  feet  from  the 
roots  of  the  trees.  The  digging  round  the  trees  is  high- 
ly useful,  while  tarring  is  injurious.  The  expense  is 
not  great;  a  man  can  dig  round  50  large  trees  in  a  day. 
The  lime  is  a  most  salutary  manure  to  the  trees.  After 
the  spot  has  been  once  opened  and  limed,  the  labor  of 
keeping  it  open  will  not  be  great.  Three  hogsheads  of 
air-slacked  lime,  or  sweepings  of  a  Ume  store,  will  suf- 
fice for  50  trees,  and  will  cost  f,  3.  As  it  is  done  but 
once  a  year,  he  thinks  it  cannot  be  half  so  expensive  as 
tarring. 

Caterpillars.  The  foregoing  directions,  for  keeping 
cankerworms  from  trees,  are  equally  applicable  to  these 
destructive  insects.  When  a  nest  is  formed  early  in  the 
spring,  run  a  pole  into  it,  twist  it  round  till  the  nest  and 
its  contents  are  wrapped  round  the  pole,  and  bring  the 
whole  down  and  kill  the  worms.  Let  this  be  done  early 
in  the  morning,  when  the  dew  is  on,  or  in  had  weather. 
If  any  escape  this  operation,  repeat  it  when  they  have 
rebuilt  the  nest.  It  is  asserted  that  spirits  of  turpentine, 
or  common  fish  oil,  applied  to  the  nest  with  a  mop  of 
rags,  will  penetrate  through,  and  kill  every  caterpillar 
within  it ;  and  it  is  also  said,  that  soap-suds  will  answer 
the  same  purpose.  This  attention,  continued  for  a  short 
time  every  spring,  will  destroy  those  in  existence,  and 
will  prevent  their  increase  in  future  years — if  left  till 
grown  strong,  they  wander  from  their  nests,  and  cannot 
be  eifectually  overcome  without  great  trouble  and  ex- 
pense. 

Gathering,  and  Preserving  Apples.  The  first  requisite 
is,  to  ascertain  precisely  when  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  as 
it  is  said,  that  the  longer  winter  apples  are  suifered  to 
remain  on  the  trees,  provided  they  are  not  overtaken 
by  frost,  the  longer  they  may  be  preserved.  It  maybe 
considered  a  correct  rule,  that  apples  are  ripe  when 
those  that  are  sound  and  iair  fall  naturall}'^  from  the  trees, 
or  separate  very  readily  on  being  lifted  by  the  hand — 
They  should  be  gathered  during  a  clear  dry  air,  after 
the  dew  has  evaporated.  In  gathering  apples  and 
pears,  it  is  necessary  carefully  to  avoid  injuring  the  blos- 
som buds,  which  are  already  formed  for  the  next  yearV 

^18 


202  PEAR   TREE, 

truit.  These  buds  are  placed  at  the  side  of  the  foot 
stalk  of  the  fruit,  and,  if  the  spurs  are  broken,  there 
will  be  no  fruit  on  that  part  the  next  season.  The  press- 
ing against  the  trees,  therefore,  with  heavy  ladders,  and 
the  rash  practice  of  thrashing  the  limbs  with  poles,  ought 
to  be  entirely  abandoned ;  for  by  such  means,  the  bark 
and  limbs  are  bruised,  and  the  blossom  buds  for  the  suc- 
ceeding year  are  destroyed.  Instead  of  ladders,  step- 
ping frames  should  be  employed,  and  a  pole,  furnished 
with  a  hook  at  the  end,  and  covered  with  coarse  cloth, 
may  be  used  to  shake  the  small  limbs,  without  injuring 
the  bark.  When  perfectly  ripe,  apples  for  cider  may 
be  shaken  off  without  injury  to  the  buds,  but  still  they 
will  be  bruised,  unless  the  ground  be  covered  with  blan- 
kets or  straw.  Particular  care  is  requisite  in  gathering 
winter  fruit  for  keeping:  they  should  be  gathered  by 
the  hand,  and  without  injury,  lemoving  them  from  the 
gathering  basket  to  the  casks  prepared  for  them,  with 
great  care  :  if  bruised,  they  soon  decay  ;  and  the  less 
those  that  are  sound  are  moved,  the  better.  When  in 
barrels,  they  should  be  placed  in  a  dry,  cool,  shaded  sit- 
\iation,  above  ground,  and  remain  until  danger  by  frost, 
and  then  put  into  the  cellar.  If  apples  are  packed  in 
layers  with  clean  and  perfectly  dry  sand,  late  in  October, 
they  will  keep  much  longer,  and  be  in  a  much  better 
condition  to  ship  to  a  distant  market.  Some  persons 
construct  shelves  in  a  cellar  secure  against  frost,  and 
place  their  apples  separately  upon  them,  and  iind  an  ad- 
vantage in  saving  their  fruit  over  to  the  spring,  which 
fully  repays  the  expense.  This  is  considered  in  the  end 
as  cheap  as  barrels.  If  put  together  in  large  parcels,  in 
very  warm  cellars,  they  heat,  and  then  they  rot ;  and, 
fho  e  of  them  that  happen  not  to  rot,  lose  their  flavor. 

PEAR   TREE. 

This  tree  will  grow  better  on  a  stiff  clay,  than  most 
•ther  fruit  trees  ;  but  the  soils  which  best  suit  the  ap- 
pletree  are  also  most  suitable  for  it.  Most  of  the  direc- 
tions already  detailed,  relative  to  the  cultivati*  n  of  the 
appletree,  may  be  applied  to  that  of  the  pear  tree. 

Pear  trees  require  but  little  pruning,  comparatively 
frith  the    apple  tres,   and  if  carried    to  excels,  proves 


PEACH   TRKE»  203 

very  injurious.  All  dead  branches,  howevep,  and  even 
thrifty  ones,  which  interfere  and  chafe  each  other,  and 
every  sucker  proceeding  from  the  trunk  or  roots,  should 
he  carfully  removed.  Pear  trees,  and  other  fruit  trees, 
are  frequently  affected,  and  sometimes  suddenly,  with- 
out discovering  the  causes  of  their  decline.  A  gentle- 
man of  Maryland  has  been  very  successful  in  preserving 
his  trees  by  washing  their  trunks  with  soft  soap. 

From  the  pear  is  prepared  a  pleasant  liquor,  known 
under  the  name  of  perry,  which  is  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  cider.  In  England,  particular  kinds  of  pears 
are  cultivated  for  this  purpose,  and  the  hquor  is  held  in 
high  estimation. 

PEACH    TREE. 

Peach  trees  require  a  warm,  dry,  fertile  soil  :  A  san- 
dy loam  is  best.  If  the  spot  where  they  are  planted  be 
sheltered  from  the  northerly  winds,  it  will  be  the  better. 
It  is  exceedingly  to  be  regretted,  that  these  trees  of  late 
years  have  become  liable  to  premature  decay,  and  the 
period  of  their  duration  is  greatly  diminished,  insomuch, 
that  their  continuance  in  a  healthy  bearing  state  seldom 
exceeds  3  or  4  years.  This  misfortune  is  increased  by 
the  circumstance,  that  a  peach  orchard  cannot  be  rear- 
ed a  second  time  on  the  same  spot,  unless  the  soil  be 
renovated  by  several  years  intermediate  culture  of  other 
crops. 

To  raise  the  young  trees,  take  stones  that  are  fully 
ripe,  and  plant  them  in  October,  about  2  inches  deep. — 
They  will  come  up  and  grow  to  a  good  size  in  the 
course  of  the  summer.  They  are  to  be  kept  clear  of 
weeds,  while  in  the  nursery.  At  a  years  growth,  they 
may  be  inoculated,  and,  after  two  summer's  growth, 
they  may  be  transplanted.  This  may  be  done  when 
the  leaves  have  fallen  in  autumn,  or  in  the  sj)rino'.  If 
the  stones  are  not  planted  in  the  fall,  they  must  be  pre- 
served in  sand,  and  planted  in  March  :  in  this  case  they 
must  be  broken  open  without  injuring  the  kernel.  Some 
think  it  best  to  plant  stone  fruit,  on  a  small  spot,  and 
afterwards  plant  the  seedlings  out  in  the  nursjery.  This 
may  be  done  the  next  fall  or  spring  after  they  are 
planted. 


204  PEACH    TREE. 

Budding  or  Inoculating  is  commonly  practised  upon 
all  sorts  of  stone  fruit  ;  such  as  peaches,  nectarines, 
(Cherries,  plums,  &,c.  When  the  stocks  are  from  about 
an  half  an  inch,  or  a  little  less,  to  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter,  in  the  places  where  the  buds  are  to  be  insert- 
ed, they  are  then  of  a  proper  size  for  working.  In  making 
a  selection  of  trees,  from  which  to  inoculate,  care  should 
be  had  to  obtain  the  buds  irom  the  trees  bearing  the  finest 
fruit  ;  that  this  fruit  ripen  at  different  times,  from  the 
earliest  to  the  latest  for  peaches  ;  and  that  they  be  tak- 
en from  trees  which  are  good  bearers,  and  in  a  healthy 
condition.  The  proper  season  for  budding,  is  from  the 
beginning  of  July  to  the  end  of  August.  The  method 
of  perlbrming  it,  as  described  in  the  Orchardist^  is  as  fol- 
lows :  The  buds  preferred,  are  the  shortest  observed  on 
the  middle  of  a  young  shoot,  on  the  outside  of  a  tree. — 
For  gathering  the  shoots  containing  the  buds,  a  cloudy 
day,  or  an  early  or  late  hour  is  chosen.  The  buds 
should  be  used  as  soon  after  being  gathered,  as  possible, 
and  the  whole  operation  should  be  quickly  performed. 
In  taking  off  the  bud  from  the  twis-,  the  knife  is  inserted 
about  half  an  inch  above  it,  and  a  thin  slice  of  the  bjiirk, 
and  wood  along  with  it,  taken  off,  bringing  out  the  knife 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  below  the  bud.  Or  the  knife 
may  be  inserted  three  quarters  of  an  inch  below  the 
bud,  and  cut  upwards.  This  lower  part  is  afterwards 
shortened  and  dressed,  and  the  leaf  is  cut  off,  the  stalk 
being  left  about  half  an  inch  long.  The  portion  of 
wood  is  then  taken  out  by  raiding  it  from  the  bark,  and 
pulling  it  downwards  or  upwards,  according  as  the  cut 
has  been  made  from  above  or  below.  If  the  extraction 
of  the  wood  occasion  a  hole  at  the  bud,  that  bud  is 
spoilt,  and  another  must  be  prepared  in  its  stead.  For 
the  performance  of  this  operation,  provide  a  sharp 
budding-knife,  with  a  flat  thin  haft,  of  ivory,  suitable 
to  open  the  bark  of  the  stock  for  the  admission  of  the 
bud,  and  also  with  a  quantity  of  bass  strings,  or  woolen 
yarn,  to  bind  round  it  when  inserted.  On  a  smooth 
part  of  the  bark  of  the  stock  a  transverse  section, 
(that  is  across  the  stock)  is  now  made  through  the 
bark    down    to    the   wood  ;     from  this  is  made  a  longi- 


PEACH    TREE.  2IQ5 

tudinal  cut  downward,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long',  so 
that  the  incision  may  somewhat  resemble  the  letter  T; 
by  means  of  the  tlat  ivory  haft  of  the  budding-knife,  the 
t>ark  is  raised  a  little  on  each  side  of  the  longitudinal  in- 
cision, so  as  to  receive  the  bud.  The  prepared  bud  is 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  incision  so  made,  and 
drawn  downwards;  tbe  upper  part  is  then  cut  off  trans- 
versly,  and  the  bud  pushed  upwards  till  the  bark  of  the 
bud  and  of  the  stock  join  together.  It  is  retained  in  this 
situation  by  means  of  tying  with  strands  of  bass,  or 
woolen  yarn,  applied  in  such  manner,  as  to  defend  the 
whole  from  the  air  and  sun,  but  leaving  the  leaf  stalk, 
and  the  projecting  part  of  the  bark,  uncovered.  In 
about  a  month  after  the  operation,  the  tying  is  slacken- 
ed ;  buds,  that  have  taken  appear  swelled,  and  the  foot 
stalk  of  the  old  leaf  falls  off  on  being  slightly  touched. 
All  shoots  that  spring  below  the  budded  part  are  care- 
fully cutoff.  The  head  of  the  stock  is  not  removed  till 
the  following  March  ;  after  this,  the  bud  grows  vigor- 
ously, and,  in  the  course  of  this  summer,  makes  a  con- 
siderable shoot.  Against  the  next  spring,  the  shoot  is 
beaded  down  in  the  manner  of  young  grafted  trees. 

In  taking  up  the  young  trees,  care  must  be  taken  to 
preserve  the  roots  as  much  as  possible.  Such  parts  as 
are  bruised  should  be  removed,  and  the  small  roots  may 
be  a  little  shortened.  Be  careful  not  to  plant  them  too 
deep.  They  should  be  planted  12  or  15  feet  apart. — 
It  is  important  to  transplant  these  trees,  as  young  as 
possible,  where  you  mean  them  to  stand  ;  if  in  the  ker- 
nel so  much  the  better;  because  in  that  case  there  will 
be  no  check  pf  growth,  which  always  injures  peach 
trees. 

Pruning  must  be  omitted  until  they  have  taken  root ; 
and  then  but  very  little  is  necessary,  except  cutting 
away  the  decayed  branches.  In  gummy  trees,  as  the 
peach  or  cherry,  all  wounds  should  be  carefully  covered 
from  the  weather.  When  young  trees  are  overloaded 
with  fruit,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  thin  them  out 
while  small  according  to  the  strength  of  the  tree. 

The  premature  decay  of  peach  trees  has  been  ascrib- 
ed to  various  causes.  But  the  true  causes,  as  detailed 
by  Dr.  Mease,  seem  to  be  the  following. 


206  PEACH    TREE. 

1.  The  fly  that  deposits  eggs  near  the  root,  and  there 
forms  a  worm. 

2.  The  bursting  of  the  bark  bj'^  severe  frosts  in  wet 
winters. 

3.  The  spliting  off  the  limbs  at  the  fork  of  the  tree. 
The    worms    are    said   to  be   produced  by  a  blue  fly, 

which  attacks  the  trees  from  about  the  middle  of  July 
to  the  middle  of  September,  and  generally  deposits  its 
eggs  in  the  bark  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
To  take  out  this  worm  the  roots  must  be  uncovered  as 
soon  as  the  tree  begins  to  bud  in  the  spring,  and  the 
spot  looked  for  where  the  gum  oozes  out.  Follow  the 
cavity  round  with  the  point  of  a  knife  or  a  chisel,  until 
you  come  to  the  solid  wood,  lay  the  whole  open,  and 
you  will  find  the  worm,  with  a  white  body  and  black 
head,  which  must  be  destroyed  and  the  hole  filled  with 
cow  dung,  rendered  adhesive  by  lime,  sand  and  ashes. 
Soap  suds,  heated,  and  poured  on  the  roots  of  trees, 
about  the  middle  of  August,  have  been  used  with  suc- 
Cf!S5  ill  uesiroyiug  the  egg'e,  &.c.  Or  as  soon  as  the  buds 
begin  to  put  forth,  remove  from  the  bottom  of  the  tree 
entirely  all  the  dirt  or  turf  till  you  come  to  the  base  roots, 
from  which  scrape  all  the  loose  old  bark  :  then  take  three 
quarts  of  fresh  slacked  lime  for  a  full  grown  tree,  and  so  in 
proportion  for  a  smaller  and  younger  one,  and  lay  it  care- 
fully on  and  about  the  roots,  covering  it  from  the  weath- 
er, and  it  is  said  to  destroy  the  destructive  maggots,  entire- 
ly.    Ashes  used  in  the  same  way  has  been  recommended. 

It  is  stated  in  the  American  Farmer^  that  boxes  made 
round  trees,  about  one  foot  in  height,  and  in  capacity, 
exclusive  of  the  tree,  to  hold  a  peck,  filled  with  bark 
from  tan  vats,  and  pressed  a  little  together,  will  secure, 
the  trees  from  worms  a  long  time.  It  is  also  useful  for 
plum  trees,  and  in  restoring  all  kinds  of  decayed  fruit 
trees.  It  is  considered  best  to  renew  the  tan  once  in 
about  two  years.  To  wash  the  trunks  as  recommend- 
ed for  apple  trees  will  be  useful. 

To  guard  against  frost,  plant  the  trees  where  the  wa- 
ter will  run  off,  and  procure  the  sweetest  and  richest 
fruit  as  the  inferior  qualities  are  more   injured  by  cold. 

The  spliting  of  the  trees  at  the  forks  is  guarded 
against  by  preserving  as  many  upright  branches  as  pos- 


PLUM    TREE. 


207 


sible,    by  breaking  off,  in  bearing  3'ears  more   than  half 
the  fruit  while  small,  and  by  careful  pruning. 

Let  no  kinds  of  beasts  into  peach  orchards,  hogs  ex- 
cepted^ for  fear  of  wounding  the  trees ;  as  the  least 
wound  renders  the  tree  less  productive,  and  the  quality 
of  the  fruit  inferior. 

Mr  Coxe  says,  the  fine  peaches  which  are  raised  for 
the  Philadelphia  market,  are  cultivated  in  the  following 
manner.  The  trees  are  procured  from  nurseries  estab- 
lished on  fresh  ground  ;  they  are  planted  on  land  not 
previously  occupied  by  peach  trees ;  the  land  is  culti- 
vated with  manured  crops  of  corn,  potatoes,  vines,  or 
pulse,  without  intermission ;  the  trees  are  carefully 
searched  for  the  worm,  in  the  spring,  summer  and  au- 
tumn. Fresh  cow  dung  is  an  excellent  application  ibr 
wounds  made  by  the  worms  ;  ashes  and  lime,  are  offen- 
sive to  the  worm;  marie  has  been  successfully  used  as 
a  manure  round  peach  trees — several  shovel  fulls  to  each 
tree — with  this  management,  a  peach  orchard  near  a 
market,  or  on  navigable  waters,  will  be  a  profitable 
application  of  land,  but  no  precaution  will  ensure  its  du- 
ration beyond  three  or  four  years.  In  some  soils  and 
situations  it  maj'^  succeed  much  longer. 

We  may  have  great  abundance  of  this  delicious  fruit, 
in  every  variety,  if  every  farmer  and  horticulturalist, 
would  plant  the  number,  to  which  he  could  utteiKJ,  with- 
out interference  with  his  other  concerns.  He  might 
keep  up  a  constant  succession,  by  setting  out  a  few  eve- 
ry year,  our  grain  and  garden  plants  in  general,  require 
renewal  annually  ;  and  peach  trees  require  no  more 
trouble.  A  tree  with  very  little  attention,  will  protUice 
three  or  four  crops.  Its  growth  is  quick  ;  and  it  may 
be  propagated  easily,  and  come  to  perfection,  in  any  soil 
of  tolerable  staple.  As  the  older  trees  decay,  and  grow 
sickly,  young  and  vigorous  trees  will  begin  to  bear. 

PLUM    TUEE. 

The  management  proper  for  raising  this  tree  is  the 
same  as  that  for  peaches. 

A  good  sandy  loam,  well  manured,  is  the  best  for  this 
tree.  Stifl  clays  are  very  unfit  for  it.  It  is  increased 
by  grafting  or  budding  on  its  own  stock. 


2081  OHKRRy    TREE. 

Curculio.  This  is  a  bug,  about  the  size  of  that  which 
eats  into  the  pea,  and  has  proved  very  troublesome  to 
most  of  the  smooth  skinned  stone  fruits,  and  even  to 
peaches,  apples,  and  pears,  in  some  parts  of  the  United 
States.  It  ascends  the  trees  in  the  spring,  and  as  the 
fruit  advances  it  makes  a  wound  in  the  skin,  and  there 
deposits  the  embryo  ;  from  which  a  maggot  is  produced. 
This  preys  upon  the  fruit  until  it  dies  and  falls  off; 
when  the  maggot  makes  its  way  into  the  earth,  and  is 
there  changed  into  a  bug,  which  is  ready  to  ascend  the 
tree  the  next  spring,  and  make  its  deposit,  as  before. 

It  is  recommended  to  put  a  ring  round  the  tree,  of 
a  mixture  of  greese,  or  blubber,  mixed  with  salt.  Per- 
haps some  of  the  other  ingredients  for  destroying  worms, 
would  answer  abetter  purpose. 

Mr.  Philips^  of  Pennsylvania,  finds  hogs  of  great  use  in 
an  orchard  of  plum  trees.  They  cause  his  trees  to  bear 
plentifully  ;  while,  without  those  animals,  the  trees  bear 
very  little.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the  swine,  by 
eating  up  all  the  fruit  which  falls  from  ihe  trees,  destroy 
the  voung  brood  of  curculiones  deposited  in  the  fruit, 
which  is  the  cause  of  its  early  falHng  off. 

CHERRY    TREE. 

It  is  to  be  regretted,  says  Dr.  Thacher,  that  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  valuable  kinds  of  cherries  is  so  generally 
neglected.  Many  i^dvantages  would  accrue  to  the  farm- 
er from  the  cultivation  of  the  cherry  tree  ;  it  would 
serve  the  useful  purposes  of  ornament  and  shade  to  hi* 
orchard  and  buildings,  and  the  fruit  would  afford 
his  family  not  merely  an  innocent,  but  salutary  luxury  ; 
and  if  near  a  market,  the  profit  would  re»unerate  him 
for  ail  his  labor  and  expense. 

Cherries  are  propagated  by  budding  them  upon  stocks, 
raised  from  the  stones  of  the  common  black  or  red  cher- 
ry, or  upon  stocks  raised  from  the  stones  of  any  other 
kind  of  the  same  fruit  ;  but  the  two  first  are  most  es- 
teemed for  that  purpose,  because  they  generally  shoot 
much  *reer  than  any  other.  The  stocks  are  obtained  by 
planting  the  seeds  in  a  nursery,  and  the  seedlings  are 
afterwards  transplanted.  The  whole  method  of  man- 
agement pertaining  to  cherry  trees  is  so  precisely  simi- 


QUINCE    TREE. 


209 


lar  to  that  already  detailed,  when  treatin*  of  peach 
trees,  that  it  is  thought  unnecessary  to  say  any  thing 
more. 

QUINCE    TREE. 

The  quince  may  he  propagated  by  layers  and  cutting?. 
(See  layers  and  cuttings.)  It  may  also  be  propagated 
by  budding  or  grafting.  Quince  trees  flourish  best,  and 
are  more  productive  in  a  moist  soil,  though  the  fruit 
from  those  set  in  dry  situations,  is  said  to  possess  a  finer 
flavor.  It  requires  but  very  little  pruning;  the  most 
important  part  of  their  management  consists  in  clearing 
their  stenis  from  suckers,  and  in  cutting  off  such  branch- 
es as  interfere  with  each  other.  All  luxurient  shoots 
that  strike  up  from  the  middle  of  the  tree,  must  be  lop- 
ped off,  10  prevent  the  head  from  being  too  much  crowd- 
ed with  wood,  which  might  impede  the  growth  of  the 
fruit.  If  the  tree  becomes  diseased  or  rotten,  the  dead 
parts  should  be  cut  away,  and  the  composition  applied, 
as  in  appie  trees.  We  aie  advised  to  plant  them  at  a 
good  distance  from  apple  and  pear  trees,  lest  the  fari- 
na become  mixed,  and  the  fruits  degenerate. 

Method  of  forcing  Fruit  Trees  to  blossom  andhear  Fruit. 

With  a  sharp  knife,  cut  a  ring  round  the  limb  or  small 
branch  which  you  wish  shouid  bear,  near  the  stem  or 
large  bough  where  it  is  joined  ;  let  this  ring  or  cut  pen- 
etrate to  the  wood.  A  quarter  of  an  incli  from  this  cut, 
make  a  second  like  the  first,  encircling  the  branch  like 
a  ring  a  quarter  of  an  inch  broad  between  the  two  cuts. 
The  bark,  between  these  two  cuts,  must  be  removed, 
clean  down  to  the  wood ;  even  the  fine  inner  bark, 
which  iies  immediately  upon  the  wood,  must  be  scraped 
away,  until  the  bare  nuked  wood  appears,  white  and 
smooth,  so  that  no  connexion  whatever  remains  betweea 
the  two  parts  of  the  bark.  This  barking,  or  girdling, 
must  be  made  at  the  precise  time  when,  in  all  naiure, 
the  buds  are  strongly  swelling,  or  about  breaking  out 
into  blossoms.  In  the  same  year  a  callus  is  iormcd  at 
the  edges  of  the  ring,  on  both  sides,  and  the  connexion 
of  the  bark  is  again  restored,  without  any  detriment  to 
19 


«10 


CIDER. 


the  tree  or  the  branch  operated  upon.     By    this  simple 
operation,  the  following  advantages  will  be  obtained : 

1.  Every  young  tree,  of  which  you  do  not  know  the 
sort,  is  compelled  to  show  its  fruit,  and  decide  sooner 
whether  it  may  remain  in  its  present  state,  or  requires 
to  be  grafted. 

2.  You  may  thereby,  with  certainty,  get  fruit  of  a 
good  sort,  and  reject  the  more  oriiinary.  The  branch- 
es so  operated  upon,  are  hung  full  of  fruit,  while  others 
that  are  not  ringed,  often  have  none  or  very  little  on 
them. 

CIDER. 

When  of  a  proper  age  and  well  refined,  pure  cider 
may  be  considered  as  a  pleasant  and  salutary  beverage, 
if  used  with  moderation,  and  calculated  to  obviate  a  pu- 
trid tendency  in  the  humors. 

We  have  heard  the  opinion  expressed,  says  Mr.  Pick^ 
ering^  that  orchards  of  ungrafted  fruit  make  the  best  ci- 
der. This  surely  is  an  error.  For  although  in  a  large 
orchard  some  gobd  natural  fruits  may  be  found,  yet  ma- 
ny of  the  trees  produce  apples  so  small  as  to  cost  too 
much  labor  to  collect  them,  and  others  have  juices  so 
meagre  as  when  collected  to  be  of  little  worth.  A  few 
sorts  >vhich  in  England  have  been  celebrated  for  yield- 
ing the  finest  ciders,  were  always  grafted  with  as  much 
attention  as  apples  designed  for  the  table  are  with  us. 
In  some  parts  of  New-Jersey,  in  which  ciders  of  su- 
perior excellence  are  made,  the  farmers  produce  them 
wholly  by  grafting :  nor  can  we  expect  fully  to  rival 
them,  until  we  adopt  the  same  practice.  Perhaps  there 
are  few  extensive  natural  orchards  in  New-England  in 
which  valuable  cider  fruits  may  not  be  iound,  with  rich 
yellow  tlesh,  capable  of  yieldino-  liquors  strong  and  of  ex- 
cellent flavor  From  such  trees,  if  still  young,  or  in  vig- 
orous life,  whole  orchards  might  soon  be  formed.  And 
probably  different  kinds  might  be  selected  which  ripen 
their  fruits  at  the  times  n)ost  proper  for  making  them 
into  cider.  Apples  until  ttiellow  do  not  attain  their  high- 
est flavor ;  and  till  then  ciinnot  give  the  highest  flavor 
to  cider.  Many  reach  that  mellow  and  ripe  state  in  Oc- 
tober and    November,    which  may  be   called  the  cider- 


CIDER. 


211 


niuking  months  in  New-England.  It  would  require  bul 
little  attention  to  select  and  propagate  the  best  apples 
thus  ripening  in  .succession.  Such  ciders,  made  of  ripe 
and  unmixed  fruits,  would  be  more  easily  managed  in 
the  most  difficult  and  important  part  of  the  process  of 
cider  making — its  tirst  fermentation. 

To  make  the  best  cider,  there  are  several  requisites. 
The  apples  should  be  of  one  sort,  and  of  the  best  kind. 
They  should  be  perfectly  sound,  ripe,  clean,  and  dry. 
Those  which  are  shook  from  the  trees  by  a  gentle  shak- 
ing, late  in  the  season,  are  best;  and  all  knotty,  wormy, 
and  rotten  ones  should  be  rejected.  Such  as  are  not  of 
this  prime  rate  may  be  made  into  common  cider. 

The  apples  thus  selected  should  be  spread  on  a  floor, 
covered  from  the  dews  and  rain  ;  but  exposed  to  a  cur- 
rent of  air.  Here  they  are  to  lie  about  fourteen  days 
for  the  purpose  of  sweating.  After  this  they  must  be 
dried  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  the  rotten  ones  thrown 
away,  and  ground  imnjediately.  A  clean,  convenient 
and  covered  mill  and  press,  is  the  tirst  pre-requisite  for 
making  good  cider  ;  and  the  straw  should  be  clear  from 
mustiness,  as  cider  readily  imbibes  oftensive  tastes.  The 
apples  should  be  reduced  to  a  fine  pulp.  The  colour 
of  the  liquor  and  its  smoothness  are  both  improved  by 
laying  from  six  to  twenty  four  hours,  according  to  the 
weather,  in  the  trough  after  grinding ;  turning  it  fre- 
quently to  prevent  fermentation.  Lay  up  the  pomace 
on  the  press  without  using  a  drop  of  w^ater  in  any  part 
of  the  process.  Press  the  cheese  gently  at  first,  and 
advance  slowly  to  the  utmost  power  of  the  screw.  It  is 
in  all  cases  necessary  to  return  the  first  running  on  io 
the  cheese,  until  it  runs  free  from  pulp.  To  clean  ca^ks 
which  have  been  used  for  cider,  as  soon  as  one  is  empty, 
put  in  two  or  three  quarts  of  fine  gravel,  and  three  oi 
four  gallons  of  cold  water,  and  shake  and  roll  it  well. 
Aiter  this  is  emptied  out,  pour  in  a  pail  full  of  boiling 
water;  roll  and  shake  the  water  to  every  p-art  of  the 
cask,  so  as  to  heat  it  on  all  ^^ides.  Then  pour  out  the 
water,  and  lay  the  cask  exactly  bung  h'  le  downward.-^, 
the  water  running  clear  and  entirely  off;  the  heat  in  the- 
cask  will  dry  it  perfectly.  In  this  state,  bung  it  up 
carefully,  and  it  will  keep    sweet.     When  casks  have  u 


212 


CIDER. 


sour  smell,  put  in  about  a  pint  of  unslacked  lime  for  a 
barrel  of  common  size,  and  pour  in  three  or  four  gal- 
lons of  hot  water  ;  shake  it  well,  giving  it  vent  occa- 
sionally ;  let  it  stand  till  cool,  and  then  rinse  with  cold 
water.  Repeat  this  operation  till  the  cask  smells  per- 
fectly sweet.  Wood  ashes  might  perhaps  answer  as  a 
substitute  for  lime. 

In  pouring  the  cider  into  the  cask,  let  there  be  a 
strainer  of  coarss  cloth  in  the  bottom  of  the  funnel,  or 
let  it  pass  through  sand,  to  keep  out  the  pomace.  Af- 
ter it  has  been  tilled,  the  next  process  is  the  fermenta- 
lion.  In  warm  weather,  or  in  cider  made  from  weak  or 
immature  fruit,  the  fermentation  commences  in  a  few 
hours — but  if  the  fruit  is  ripe,  and  the  weather  cold,  it 
\vill  be  delayed  for  a  week,  and  sometimes  for  a  month. 
The  casks  should  stand  in  a  cool  place  near  the  press 
under  cover,  and  where  there  is  a  free  current  of  air. 

There  are  three  fermentations  ;  the  vinous,  the  acid, 
and  the  putrid.  When  the  first  ceases,  the  second  be- 
gins, and  when  that  ceases,  the  third  begins.  The  first 
is  only  necessary  for  cider,  and  care  must  be  taken  to 
stop  all  further  fermentntion,  as  soon  as  this  is  over. 
This  is  known  b}  the  liquor  ceasing  to  throw  up  little 
bubbles  to  the  top.  Then  too  all  the  pomace  is  raised 
up,  and  if  siifiered  to  remain  there,  will  again  sink  to  the 
bottom  and  render  the  liquor  turbid.  Let  this  time  then 
be  carefully  observed,  and  let  the  liquor  then  be  drawn 
off,  not  too  closely,  and  put  into  clean  casks,  and  set 
away  in  a  cool  clean  cellar.  If  the  cider  remain  bright 
and  quiet,  nothing  more  need  be  done  to  it  till  the  suc- 
ceeding spring ;  but  if  a  scum  collect  on  the  surface,  it 
must  be  again  racked  ;  as  this,  if  suffered  to  sink,  would 
be  injurious  :  if  a  disposition  to  ferment  continue,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  rack  off  again,  whenever  a  hissing  noise 
is  heard.  The  casks  into  which  liquor  is  put,  whenev- 
er racked  off,  should  be  made  perfectly  clean  with  lime 
and  water  as  before  mentioned.  If  intended  to  be  bot- 
tled it  should  be  fined  with  isinglass  and  drawQ  off  in  ten 
or  twelve  days. 

After  the  first  racking  of  cider,  a  quantity  of  lees  re- 
main, which  when  filtered  through  coarse  linen  bags, 
velds  a  bright  liquid;     if  this  be   added  to    the    cider 


cfi)ER.  21S 

racked  off,  it  will  contribute  to  prevent  fermentation^ 
an  excess  of  which  is  injurious.  To  prevent  fermenta- 
tion, it  is  also  recommended,  to  let  the  cask  be  first 
strong-ly  fumigated  with  burnt  sulphur  ;  then  put  in 
some  of  the  cider,  burn  more  sulphur  in  the  cask,  stop 
it  tight,  and  shake  the  whole  up  together  ;  till  the 
cask,  and  bung  it  perfectly  tight. 

To  improve  cider,  draw  it  off  from  the  first  casks^ 
put  it  into  fresh  ones,  filling  each  about  three  quarters 
full,  and  set  them  away  till  winter  ;  at  which  time  let 
them  be  exposed  to  the  frosts,  until  one  half  or  even 
two  thirds  of  the  contents  of  each  are  frozen  ;  give  the 
liquor  some  vent  while  freezing  ;  draw  off  the  unfrozen 
part,  bottle  it,  or  put  it  in  clean  new  casks,  and  in  2  of 
3  years,  it  will  nearly  equal  the  best  wines.  It  is  also  a 
good  method  to  boil  cider  immediately  from  the  press. 
It  should  be  boiled  down  till  all  the  scum  has  risen  and 
been  skimmed  off.  It  ferments  but  little,  and  makes  a 
pleasant  drink  for  the  next  summer,  diluted  with  water, 
if  bottled,  or  otherwise  kept  well.  Cider  may  be  kept 
for  years  in  casks,  without  fermenting,  by  burying  them 
deeply  undei*  ground,  or  immersing  them  in  Spring  wa- 
ter ;  and  when  taken  up  the  cider  will  be  very  fine. 

Where  the  farmer  is  rich  and  forehanded,  it  is  advis- 
able to  have  a  vat  m.ade  near  the  press,  which  will  con- 
tain from  8  to  20  barrels.  This  may  be  made  square  or 
round.  Into  this  vat  the  cider,  as  it  is  made,  should  be 
turned,  and  suffered  to  work  off  in  the  open  air.  This 
will  save  much  future  trouble.  There  should  be  a  tap 
and  faucet,  near  the  bottom,  to  draw  off  the  cider,  when 
the  scum  or  crust  is  perfectly  formed.  For  want  of 
this,  large  open  hogsheads  will  answer  ;  or,  leave  tlie 
barrels  not  full  by  a  gallon  or  two,  and  as  they  work  off 
fill  them  up,  and  after  the}  have  done  working,  rack 
them  into  other  ca^sks. 

19* 


GAKDE^IXG. 


Gardening  is  the  most  productive  and  advantageous 
mode  of  occupying  the  surface  of  the  soil.  It  also  pro- 
duces the  most  refined  and  luxurious  articles  of  human 
food,  and  in  some  respects  the  most  wholesome. 

It  is  truly  astonishing  in  this  enlightened    age,  an  age 
characterized  by  so  many    useful    establishments,    that 
Horticulture  should  have  been  so  remarkably  neglected, 
and  by  that  class  of  citizens  too  who  are  most  interested 
in  its  advancement,  we  mean  the  agriculturalists  ;  while 
so   productive  a  source  of  comfort,  profit,  and   economy 
lies  so  completely  within  the  compass  of  their  operations. 
The  garden  has,  or  ought  to  have,   many  attractions. — 
It  is  the  household  farm.     It  is  always  under  the  eye — 
it  may   be  made  the  companion  and  the  friend  of  many 
a  leisure  hour,  it  furnishes  a  spot,  where,  at  chance  in- 
tervals of  severer  labour,  every  man,  even  the  humblest 
in  the  community,  who  has  a  garden  patch,  may  benefit 
himself,  and  take  a  pleasure  in  his  labour.     The  cultiva- 
tion of  a  garden  furnishes  a  pleasant  and  rational  amuse- 
ment.    At  a  small  expense,  and   a  little  labour,  it    pre- 
sents to  you  a  great  variety  of  the  beauties  of  nature, 
and  it  may  be  made  to  supply  most  families  with  a  moie- 
ty of  their  sustenance.     To  be  sure  there    is    no   great 
profit  in  cash  arising  to  the  farmer  from   gardening  be- 
yond the  limits   of  20  miles  from    a  great  town^ — but 
when  men  have  arrived  to  the  degree  of  comfort  which 
our  farmers  generally  enjoy,  they  ought  to  seek  innocent 
luxuries. 

A  kitchen-garden,  well  stored  with  vegetables,  is  high- 
ly important  to  the  Farmer,  as  the  us*i  of  these  super- 
cede the  necessity  of  consuming  much  meat ;  a  practice 
equally  inconsistant  with  economy  and  with  good  health. 
But  the  great  mass  of  citizens  do  certainly  deprive 
themselves  of  much  convenience,   saving,   and  perhaps 


GARDENING.  215 

health,  by  not  possessing  .a  liberal  supply  of  vegetables 
from  their  own  g-ardens. 

We  do  not  invite  the  husbandmnn  from  the  utility  of 
his  farm  to  the  pleasures  of  a  gardin  ;  we  do  not  wish 
him  to  sacrifice  his  grain  fiel.ls  'o  the  culture  of  a  tulip 
bed;  but  we  wish  to  call  his  aUeviiion  to  the  utility,  con- 
venience, and  economy  that  can  be  found  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  substantial  kitchen  garden,  from  which  his 
healthful  family  can  draw  many  of  those  really  innocent 
luxuries,  which  a  bountiful  Providence  has  spread 
around  him. 

Many  persons,  sensible  of  the  utility,  are  often  dissuad- 
ed from  constant  attempts  in  cultivating  a  kitchen  garden, 
because  they  have  experienced  some  failures  in  partic- 
ular plants.  But  there  will  never  be  a  failure  of  vege- 
tables enough  for  a  family's  use,  if  the  following  requi- 
sites be  well  regarded :  Richness  of  soil  ;  due  care  in 
the  selection  of  seeds  ;  proper  cultivation^  and  a  sujficient 
variety  of  vegetables^  that  if  one  kind  fails^  another  may  be 
a  substitute. 

Soil  and  Situation.  It  is  found  that  a  sandy  loam 
which  is  several  feet  deep  is  best  for  a  garden  ;  but 
any  loose  mellow  soil  is  suitable.  It  is  fortunate,  how- 
ever, when  a  garden  contains  a  variety  of  soils  ;  as 
some  vegetables  require  a  strong  and  heavy  soil,  and  do 
not  thrive  in  a  light  one.  But,  we  must  take  what  we 
find,  or  rather  what  we  happen  to  have.  If  we  have  a 
choice,  we  ought  to  take  that  which  comes  nearest  to 
perfection,  and,  if  we  possibly  can,  we  ought  to  reject 
clay  and  gravely  not  only  as  a  top-soil,  but  as  a  bottom 
soil. 

A  garden,  if  possible,  should  have  a  southerly  ex- 
posure. It  should  be  near  the  house,  not  only  for  the 
purpose  of  having  it  under  the  eye  of  the  owner,  but 
to  save  time  in  its  cultivation  and  the  daily  gathering  of 
its  products.  If  it  be  practicable,  to  make  a  garden 
near  to  running  water,  and  especially  to  water  that  may 
be  turned  into  the  garden,  the  advantage  ought  to  be 
profited  of  From  a  kitchen-gj^rden  all  large  trees  ought 
to  be  kept  at  a  distance  of  30  or  40  yards. 

Size.  The  size  of  the  garden  should  be  proportioned 
to  the  wants  of  the  family.     It   ought  to  be  sufficiently 


21 G  GiARDilNIKSv 

large  to  raise  many  of  the  useful  and  various  kinds  of 
vegetables  and  fruits,  which  contribute  to  the  suste- 
nance, comfort,  and  pleasufre  of  life  Such  fruit  trees, 
which  make  but  little  shade,  as  grapes,  currents,  quinces, 
&c.  may  be  very  ag'reeably  intermixed  with  the  growths 
of  the  kitchen-garden.  It  will  be  found  that  a  garden 
of  this  kind  should  not  contain  in  general  less  than  a 
quarter  of  an  acre.  But  if  the  family  is  large,  half,  or 
three  quarters  of  an  acre  ought  to  be  cultivated  as  a 
garden.  It  is  probable,  that  matters  may  be  so  arrang- 
ed, that  a  farmer  may,  with  the  assistance  of  his  familj^, 
cultivate  such  a  portion  of  ground,  without  improperly 
interfering  with  regular  labour.  It  should  be  enclosed 
with  a  high  close  fence,  which  besides  rendering  every 
thing  secure  ;  serves  to  keep  off  the  strong  cold  winds 
of  Spring,  which  are  very  injurious  to  the  young  plants, 
and  also  to  the  fruit,  which  is  then  about  putting  forth. 

Tools.  The  most  important  instrument  in  the  farm- 
er's garden,  is  the  plough.  The  spade  is  the  next  in- 
strument. This  may  be  thin  and  sharp,  and  if  used  on- 
ly in  the  garden,  will  last  many  years.  The  hoe  is  an 
indispensable  tool,  aad  of  this  you  must  ha',  e  three  va- 
rieties :  the  large,  the  small,  and  narrow  hoe,  all  of  which 
should  be  sharp,  and  kept  exclusively  for  the  garden. 
Two  iron  rakes,  a  coarse  and  tine  one,  will  often  be 
wanted  ;  and  a  strong  line  of  at  least  40  feet  in  length. 
A  rake  can  be  made  in  about  30  minutes,  which  will 
mari:  out  more  ground  for  the  gardener  to  seed  than  four 
men  could  perform  in  the  common  way  in  equal  length 
of  time.  The  head  of  the  rake  is  to  be  about  6  i'eet 
long;  into  this,  bore  holes  with  an  inch  auger,  at  such 
distances  as  you  wish  to  have  the  seed  sown  ;  put  in 
teeth,  sharpened  at  their  lower  ends  ;  and  attach  a  han- 
dle 5  or  6  feet  long.  The  head  of  the  rake  should  be 
eufficiently  heavy,  and  the  handle  and  teeth  should  be 
at  right  angles.  Begin  at  the  left  hand  end  of  the  bed 
and  draw  the  rake  across  it ;  then  proceed,  taking  care 
to  keep  the  left  hand  tooth  in  the  right  hand  drill  that 
has  just  been  made  (for  a  guide.)  In  this  way  a  pretty 
long  bed  is  formed  into  straight  drills  in  a  very  few  min- 
utes. Wiih  these  few  and  simple  tools,  all  the  work  of 
a  garden  may  be  done,  and  well  done  ;  and   if  to    these 


GARDENING.  217 

vou  add  the  wheelbarrow,  you  have  every   thing  nec- 
essary. 

Preparation  of  the  ground.  This  may  be  done  by 
ploughing  and  harrowing,  until  the  ground,  at  top,  be 
perfectly  clean ;  and,  then,  by  double  ploughing;  that 
is  to  say,  by  going,  with  a  strong  plough  that  turns  a 
large  furrow  and  turns  it  cleanly,  twice  in  the  same 
place,  and  thus  moving  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  14 
to  16  inches.  When  this  has  been  done  in  one  direc- 
tion, it  onght  to  be  done  across,  and  then  the  ground 
will  have  been  well  and  truly  moved.  The  ploughing 
ought  to  be  done  with  4  oxen,  and  the  plough  ought  to 
be  held  by  a  strong  and  careful  ploughman.  All  those 
parts  where  the  plough  cannot  go  must  be  deeply  turn- 
ed with  the  spade. 

If  the  garden  be  of  a  wetish  or  stifif  soil,  it  will  be 
greatly  benefited  by  being  thrown  up  into  high  ridges  in 
the  fall:  at  the  same  time,  this  will  assist  in  destroying 
the  seeds  of  weeds  ;  but  particularly  in  destroying  insects. 

Manure.  The  species  of  manure  must  depe.id  upon 
the  soil.  It  is  generally  thought,  that  dung,  of  any  sort, 
is  not  what  ought  to  be  used  in  the  raising  of  garden 
vegetables,  liis  very  certain  that  they  are  coarse  and 
gross  when  produced  with  aid  of  that  sort  of  manure, 
compared  to  whatihey  are  when  raised  with  the  aid  of 
ashes,  sea-weeds,  rags,  lime  and  composts.  And,  be- 
sides, dung,  in  hot  soils  and  hot  climates,  adds  to  the 
heat ;  while  those  articles  just  mentioned  do  not.  If 
dung  is  used,  it  should  be  old  and  destitute  of  seeds. — 
Hog  dung  is  supposed  to  be  best.  All  the  ground  in  a 
garden  ought  always  to  be  good  ;  and  it  will  be  kept  in 
this  state  if  it  be  well  manured  once  every  year. 

Change  of  Crops.  Skilful  gardeners  recommend  at- 
tention to  a  rotation  of  crops  that  is  fibrous  rooted  and 
tap  rooted  alternately ;  and  occasionally  lay  down  por- 
tions of  their  gardens  with  clover,  which  seldom  fails  to 
restore  them  to  their  former  fertility. 

Seeds.  It  is  quite  useless  to  prepare  land,  and  to  in- 
cur trouble  and  expense,  without  duly,  and  even  verij 
carefidhf^  attending  to  the  seed  that  we  are  going  to  sow. 
The  sori.^  the  genuineness^  the  soundness.,  are  all  matters 
to  be  attended  to  if  we  meua  to  avoid  mortification  and 
loss. 


218  GARDENING. 

If  the  farmer  does  not  save  his  own  seed,  which  can. 
not  always  be  done  with  convenience,  all  he  can  do,  is, 
to  take  every  precaution  in  his  power  when  he  pur- 
chases, and  of  whom  he  purchases.  Some  kinds  of  seed 
will  keep  a  good  many  yenvs  ;  therefore,  when  any  that 
is  venj  true  can  be  procured,  it  is  best  to  g^et  as  much  as 
will  last  for  the  number  of  years  that  such  seed  will 
keep.  Allseeds  which  are  sound,  and  really  good,  wili 
.sink  in  iuke-wann  zi-ater  in  a  short  lime,  if  divested  of  ev- 
ery thing  which  adheres  to  them. 

Commonly  speaking,  new  seed  is  to  be  preferred  to 
old,  as  growing  the  more  luxuriently,  and  comeing  up 
the  surer  and  quicker.  If  old  seed  is  knowingly  sown, 
some  allowance  in  point  of  time  must  be  made. 

As  to  the  saving  of  seed,  such  plants  should  be  select- 
ed as  are  of  the  most  perfect  shape  and  quality.  In  the 
Cabbage,  we  seek  small  stem,  well  formed  loaf,  few 
spare  or  loose  leaves  ;  in  the  1\irnip,  large  bulb,  small 
neck,  slender-stalked  leaves,  solid  flesh  or  pulp  ;  in  the 
Radish,  high  color,  (if  red  or  scarlet,)  small  neck,  few 
and  short  leaves,  and  long  root.  Of  '  plants,  the  early 
coming  of  which  is  a  circumstance  of  importance,  the 
very  earliest  should  be  chosen  for  seed.  They  should 
he  carefully  cultivated  during  the  time  they  are  carry- 
ing on  their  seed  to  perfection.  But,  effectual  means 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  a  mixing  of  the  sorts,  espec- 
ially among  cabbages,  turnips,  &c.  Mr.  Cobbett  found 
that  Indian  Corn  would  mix  when  the  plants  were  three 
hundred  yards  from  each  other.  What,  he  asks,  must 
be  the  consequence,  then,  of  saving  seed  from  cucum- 
bers, melons,  pumpkins,  and-^  squashes,  all  growing  in 
the  same  garden  at  the  same  time.  It  is  not  unfrcquent 
to  hear  persons  complaining  that  their  melons  are  bad. 
On  an  inquiry  into  this  circumstance,  it  will  often  be 
found  that  they  have  been  raised  and  have  flower- 
ed with  cucumbers;  and  that  instead  oi' thut  flavor  wliich 
is  natural,  and  which  constitutes  the  excellence  of  the 
fruit,  they  ar€^  rapid  and  unpalatable.  To  save  the  seed 
of  two  sorts  oi^  any  tribe,  in  the  same  garden,  in  the 
same  year,  ought  not  be  attempted  ;  and  this  it  is  that 
makes  it  diflicult  for  any  one  man  to  raise  all  sorts  of 
seeds  good  and  true.     However,  some  may  be  saved  by 


OARDZIfJXG. 


21^ 


every  one  who  has  a  garden;  and  when  raised,  they 
ought  to  be  carefully  preserved.  They  should  stand 
till  perfectly  ripe  ;  and  be  gathered  in  a  dry  time.  If 
any  moisture  remains  about  them,  they  should  be  placed 
in  the  sun  ;  and  when  quite  dry,  put  into  bags  and  hung 
up  against  a  dry  wall.  Thus  preserved,  seeds  will  keep 
good  for  the  number  of  years  stated  in  the  follovving" 
list : 


YEARS. 

YEARgk. 

Asparagus 

4 

Marjoram 

4 

Balm 

2 

Melon 

8  or  10 

Basil  (sweet) 

2  or  3 

Mustard 

3  or  4 

Beans 

1  or  2 

Nasturtium 

2  or  3 

Beets 

8  or  10 

Onion 

3 

Borage 

3 

Parsley 

5  or  6 

Cabbage 

6  or  8 

Parsnip 

1 

Carrot 

1  or  2 

Pea 

2  or  3 

Celery 

6  or  8 

Pumpkin 

8  or  10 

Corn  (Maize) 

2  or  3 

Peppers 

5  or  6 

Cress 

2 

Radish 

6  or  8 

Cucumber 

8  or  10 

Rue 

3 

Carraway  . 

4 

Ruta  Baga 

4 

Fennel 

5 

Salsafy 

2 

Garlick 

3 

Savory 

3  or  4 

Leek 

3  or  4 

Spinage 

3  or  4 

Lettuce 

3  or  4 

Squash, 

8  or  10 

Mangel  Wurtzel 

.8  or  10 

Turnip 

3  or  4 

Seeds  of  all  soft  fruits,  &;c.  should  be  taken  out, 
cleaned  and  dried  ;  their  preservation  will  be  more  cer- 
tain by  putting  them  in  dry  sand,  which  sucks  in  the 
moisture  from  the  seed,  and  prevents  mustiness.  It 
Avithal  retains  so  much  moisture  as  to  prevent  the  seed 
from  withering.  This  method  is  chiefly  useful  in  pre- 
serving, during  winter,  seeds  that  require  spring-sowing, 
and  in  the  conveyance  of  seeds  to  a  distance. 

Planting,  Two  essential  rules  to  be  observed  in  the 
management  of  a  kitchen  garden  arc,  never  to  crowd 
the  ground  with  more  plants  than  it  is  able  to  nourish 
properly  ;  and  never  to  let  any  part  of  it  remain  unoc- 
cupied, for  want  of  a  due  succession  of  crops.  In  laying 
out  a  bed  the  earth  should  not  be   raised  above  the  aF- 


220  GARDENING. 

leys  but  two  or  three  inches.  The  beds  laid  out  four 
feet  in  width  are  the  m  st  convenient.  Never  phmt 
when  the  ground  is  wet ;  nor  in':ieed,  if  it  can  be  avoid- 
ed, perform  any  other  act  with,  or  on,  the  ground  of  a 
garden.  If  you  dig  ground  in  wet  weather,  you  make  a 
sort  of  mortar  of  it ;  it  binds  when  the  sun  cr  wind  dries 
it.  The  fermentation  does  not  take  place  ;  and  it  be- 
comes untavoural  le  to  vegetation,  especially  if  the 
ground  be  of  a  stiff  nature.  Sow,  therefore,  if  ptss^ible, 
in  dry  weather,  but  in  freshly  moved  ground.  Seed 
should  be  *own  deepest  when  the  ground  is  dried  ;  but 
an  almost  universal  rule,  is  to  j'ropoiiion  the  depth  of 
the  sowing  to  the  size  oi"  the  seeiL  if  seed  be  ever  so 
good,  you  oughi  to  sow  at  least  doutle  what  you  Vvould 
wish  to  have  grow.  Injects  and  various  other  causes, 
may  destroy  many  of  the  sp.iall  and  tencier  plants.  Sow 
liberaiiy  if  you  would  rea]?  abundantly;  for  it  will  be 
found  m'lcn  ea-ier  to  thin  out  the  surplus,  than  to  sup- 
ply any  detioieijC}'; 

Thinning,  la  thinning  close  crops,  as  onions,  carrots, 
parsr.ipi^,  fee.  be  sure  t>iOy  are  not  loft  too  near;  for  in- 
stead of  rta['ing  a  gre;.tf.r  i  reduce,  there  would  surely 
be  a  less.  When  they  stand  lOO  cio're,  ihey  will  make 
tali  and  large  tops,  but  are  prevented  swelling  in  their 
ro-  is;  better  to  err  on  the  tic'ide  side,  /or  tbonc,h  there 
are  fewer  plants  they  will  le  tiJior.  Let  ihem  also 
be  thinned  early  ;  for,  even  wlii.e  in  seed  loaf,  they  in- 
jure each  other.  Every  tlnug  ought  to  be  tl  inned  in 
the  seed  leaf. 

lioeinpr  and  V/eedin^.  Hoe,  o^-  weed,  immediately  af- 
t2r  the  crops  are  up.  Onions,  cirrois,  parsnips,  and  all 
other  close  and  low  growing  crops,  should  be  always 
kept  free  from  weeds,  from  tl^e  n»oinent  they  appear 
above  ground,  till  grown  to  their  full  size.  A  small 
hoe  may  be  applied  where  it  will  answer,  but  where 
not,  hand-weedi!ig  mu'^^t  be  practis  d.  A  large  piece  of 
ground  may  soon  be  gone  over  with  a  hoe,  wJ-cn  the 
weeds  aie  small ;  but  when  they  are  perm)iU;d  to  grow 
large,  it  requires  double  labour  to  destroy  them.  Weeds 
grow  much  faster  than  the  p  ants  cuKi .  ated,  and  if  not 
cleared  away  in  time  vvi;!  totally  ut'Siro\  the  crops. 
Hoeing  requires  to  be  frequently  repeated,  and  to  a  con- 


GARDENING. 


221 


sirlerable  depth.  A  mere  flat  hoeing  does  nothing  but 
keep  down  the  weeds.  The  hoeing'  when  the  plants 
aro-  become  stout,  should  be  deep  ;  and  if  done  with  a 
hoe  that  has  prongs  the  better.  Deep  hoeing  is  enough 
in  some  cases ;  but,  in  others,  digging  is  necessary  to 
produce  a  fine  and  i'ull  crop.  If  any  body  will  have  a 
piece  of  cabbages,  and  will  dig  between  the  rows  of  one 
half  of  them,  twice  during  their  growth,  and  let  the  oth- 
er half  of  the  piece  have  nothing  but  a  flat  hoeing,  that 
person  will  find  that  the  half  which  has  been  digged  be- 
tween, will  weigh  nearly  twice  as  much  as  the  other 
half. 

In  hoeing,  caution  must  be  used  not  to  get  dirt  on  the 
plants,  particularly  such  as  have  large  leaves  or  wide 
stems  where  they  join  the  principal  stalk,  for  dirt  re- 
mains longer  on  such  places  and  injures  the  healthiness 
of  the  plant. 

That  a  garden  may  be  kept  clean,  not  one  weed 
should  be  suffered  to  have  its  seed  ripen  on  it.  To  pre- 
vent the  ground  from  receiving  injury,  no  more  plants 
ought  to  be  suffered  to  go  to  seed  than  will  be  sufficient 
to  furnish  seed  for  planting  for  the  next  year. 

All  refuse  leaves  of  cabbages,  &c.  should  be  carried 
off  the  ground  and  given  to  cattle,  or  they  will  give  a 
bad  smell  to  the  garden. 

Transplanting.  In  transplanting  plants,  a  wet  time  is 
to  be  chosen,  and  the  evening  is  better  than  any  other 
time.  As  much  of  the  earth  should  be  left  round  the 
roots,  as  possible,  in  taking  them  out  of  the  ground ; 
and  if  they  are  raised  with  a  trowel,  by  which  a  bunch 
of  earth  can  be  raised  with  them,  they  will  be  the  bet- 
ter for  it.  The  holes  where  they  are  sjet  should  be  wa- 
tered, and  the  water  should  previously  be  well  warmed 
in  the  sun.  In  the  act  of  transplanting,  the  main  things 
are,  not  to  bury  the  hesrt  of  the  plant ;  and  to  take 
care  that  the  earth  be  well  pressed  about  the  point  of 
the  root.  To  press  the  earth  very  closely  about  the 
stem  is  of  httle  use,  if  you  leave  the  point  of  the  root 
loose. 

Wateriiig.  With  regard  to  watering  of  plants,  all  that 
is  necessary  to  be  said,  is,  that  cold  water,  as  drawn  from 
20 


222  PEAS. 

wells,  should  never  be  applied  to  them.  The  water 
should  be  exposed  to  the  sun  for  such  lime  as  will  ren-  " 
der  it  as  warm  as  rain-water ;  and  the  quantity  applied 
at  once  should  never  be  very  great ;  but  rather  like  the 
application  of  a  gentle  rain.  Water  should  generally 
be  given,  late  in  the  afternoon,  or  very  early  in  the 
morning,  but  the  former  is  preterable ;  that  the  plant 
may  have  as  much  benefit  from  it  as  possible,  before  any. 
part  is  exhaled  by  the  heat  of  the  ensuing  day. 

PEAS. 

The  best  peas  for  garden-culture  are  the  small  early  or 
early  frame-pea,  and  the  marrowfat ;  the  former  for  early 
use,  and  the  latter  for  an  after  and  more  abundant  sup- 
ply.    Plant  peas  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  good  work- 
ing condition ;  and  from  this  time  forward  once  a  fort- 
night or  three  weeks,  to  keep  up  a  regular  supply  for 
the   table.     Or   it  will    oe  a  good  rule,   when  the  first 
plants  are  up,  to  put  in   another  crop  of  the  same  sort 
for  succession.     In  this  way  green  peas  may  be  had  from 
early  in  June,  till  the  sharp  frosts  set  in.     For  the  early 
crop,  select  the  driest  and  warmest  soil  in  the  garden, 
particularly   such  as  is  secured  from  the  north  winds,  by 
a  tight  fence,  or  a  wall.     Those  that   are  planted  late 
in  season  ought  to  be  under  the   south  fence,  so  as  to 
get  as  much  coolness  as  possible.     After  the  ground  has 
been  well  dug,  raked  and  levelled,  mark  it  out  in  double 
rows,  about  10  inches  apart,  and  leave  intervals  of  three 
feet  for  the  early  small  kind;  four  feet  for  the   larger; 
and    five  feet  for  the   largest,  so  that  when   they  are 
brushed  in  proportion  to  their  respective  growth?",  there 
may  be  a  free  passage  through  the  intervals.     Open  the 
trenches  3  inches  deep  ;  and  scatter  in  the  peas  at  the 
rate  of  about  one  to  an  inch,  and  then  cover  them  with 
a  rake.     The  ground  should  be  hoed,  and  kept  clear  of 
weeds  ;  and  when  the  young  plants  are  6  inches   high, 
the  stems  should  be  earthed  up  a  little,  and  each  double 
row  filled  with    brush  wood,  so  that    each  plant  may 
climb,  and  none  of  them  trail   upon  the  ground.     The 
brush  should  be  set  strongly  in  the  earth,  or  they  will 
not  bear  the  weight  of  the  plants  in  windy  weather. — 
Early  peas  are  found  to  be  most  productive  when  plant- 


BEANS.  223 

ed  in  separate  double  rows  in  different  parts  of  the  gar- 
den, or  with  very  wide  intervals  between,  which  can  be 
callivatfcd  with  crops  of  low  plants.  In  this  way  they 
are  furnished  with  a  sulhciency  of  sun  and  air.  (5ee  Peas 
I2ijth  puge.) 

BEANS. 

The  variety  of  kidney  beans  is  almost  endless.  The 
mode  of  propagating  and  cultivating  is  nearly  the  same 
in  all,  except  that  the  dwarfs  require  smaller  distances 
than  the  climbers,  and  that  the  latter  are  grown  with 
poles,  which  the  former  are  not.  Select  for  cultivation 
those  w^hich  experience  shows  best  suited  to  our  climate 
and  soil,  and  which  best  supply  the  wants  of  your  family. 
Every  sort  of  kidney-bean  must  have  rich  ground  to 
produce  a  large  crop. 

Bush  Beans.  It  is  a  great  object  to  have  beans  early, 
and  they  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
warm  ;  but  it  is  useless  to  plant  them  when  the  ground 
is  cold.  A  principal  crop  should  be  planted  early  in 
May,  and  successional  crops,  about  the  middle,  and  also 
towards  the  end  thereof.  For  the  early  kinds,  select  a 
piece  of  light  rich  ground  ;  let  the  drills  be  made  about 
two  feet  and  a  half  asunder,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  deep  ; 
drop  the  beans  therein,  at  the  distance  of  2  or  3  inches 
from  one  another,  and  draw  the  earth  evenly  over  them. 
As  soon  as  they  are  in  full  bloom,  and  the  lower  pods 
are  beginning  to  set,  the  tops  or  runners  should  be  cut 
off;  this  will  greatly  promote  the  swelling  of  the  pods, 
as  well  as  their  earl}^  maturit}'.  But  with  respect  to  the 
small  early  beans,  if  you  would  have  them  come  in  as 
soon  as  possible,  top  them  when  the  blossoms  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  stalks  begin  to  open. 

Pole  Beans.  For  beans  whose  vines  ne^d  support,  let 
poles  of  a  proper  height  be  fixed  in  the  ground  about  2 
ieet  apart,  in  row^  3  or  4  feet  distant  from  each  other — 
around  each  pole  let  4  or  5  beans  be  planted ;  the  poles 
should  have  small  knots  left  on  them,  or  pins  put 
through  to  support  the  vines.  This  way  of  planting 
gives  an  opportunity  of  keeping  the  soil  loose  around  the 
roots  and  prevents  the  injuries  arising  from  driving  poles 
into  the  hills.     Of  the  various  sorts  of  pole-beans  oue 


224  CABBAGES, 

planting-  is  enough;  for,  if  3^011  gather  as  the  beans  be- 
come fit  for  use,  they  continue  bearing  all  through  the 
summer,  especially  the  Lima  bean,  which  delights  in 
heat,  and  which  should  not  be  planted  till  the  ground  is 
quite  warm.  The  scarlet  bean,  (laulujlorus)  is  well 
worth  cultivating,  both  for  use  and  ornament. 

CABBAGES. 

Sow  cabbages  in  an  open  situation,  distant  from  fences, 
&c.  early  in  May,  in  rows  6  inches  apart,  and  put  the  seeds 
thin  in  the  rows.  As  soon  as  up,  thin  the  plants  to  3  or 
4  inches  in  the  rov/s.  Hoe  deep  between  the  plants, 
and  keep  them  free  from  weeds  while  they  stand  in  the 
seed  bed.  To  prevent  a  sudden  check  by  breaking  all 
the  roots  at  once,  in  hot  weather,  dig  every  other  inter- 
val, leave  the  rest,  and  dig  them  a  week  later.  If  they 
are  transplanted  into  other  beds,  when  3  or  4  inches 
high,  it  will  greatly  strengthen  them,  and  render  them 
in  a  much  better  condition  for  final  transplanting. 

The  ground  for  cabbages  must  be  well  manured, 
deeply  spaded,  made  fine,  and  intimately  mixed.  They 
require  a  deep,  very  rich,  and  moist  loam,  and  agree 
exceedingly  well,  with  large  quantities  of  manure. — 
"VV^here  manure  is  scarce,  a  spade  or  two  of  earth  is  tak- 
en out  at  a  proper  distance  for  the  plants,  and  the  rotten 
dung  laid  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  When  about  6 
inches  high,  they  will  be  fit  to  transplant.  (See  Trans- 
planting.) Set  the  larger  kinds  in  rows  about  two  and 
a  half  feet  each  way.  You  can  set  some  between  rows 
of  forward  bush-beans,  and  other  low  growing  crops, 
which  will  occupy  the  ground  when  those  are  off.  If  a 
hot  sun  cause  them  to  droop,  a  shingle  stuck  into  the 
ground  will  be  sutiicient  shelter.  Or  plant  2  shingles, 
one  on  the  southeast  side,  and  one  on  the  southwest, 
meeting  at  the  south  corner.  Covering  them  with 
leaves,  &c.  is  a  bad  practice.  In  bringing  plants  from  a 
distance,  be  careful  to  preserve  the  latteral  roots,  lay 
them  in  a  basket  upon  some  moist  grass,  and  cover  them 
lightly  with  green  leaves,  and  immediately  before  set- 
ting, dip  their  roots  into  water,  and  afterwards,  unless 
the  ground  is  quite  wet,  give  them  a  sprinkling  from  the 
water  pot.     There  is   scarcely    any    crop  that  derives 


ONIONS.  225 

more  advantage  from  having  the  soil  frequently  stirred 
and  applied  to  the  roots  of  the  plants,  than  the  cabbage. 
It  is  only  by  a  due  repetition  of  those  operations  that 
the  plants  attain  their  most  perfect  growth  and  size.  The 
later  the  plants  are,  the  more  necessary  it  is  to  earth 
them  up,  and  the  higher  should  the  earth  be  drawn. — 
After  they  have  been  earthed  up,  hoe  deep  the  rest  of 
the  ground.  When  the  underleaves  begin  to  decay, 
they  may  be  taken  off  and  fed  to  cattle.  The  plants 
will  not  be  injured  by    it.     (See  Cabbages  1 24th  page.) 

CAULIFLOWER  AND  BROCCOLI. 

These  are  a  species  of  cabbage,  but  of  a  superior 
quality.  They  are  cultivated  in  the  same  way  as  th« 
common  cabbage. 

ONIONS. 

This  root  requires  a  mellow,  dry  soil,  and  the  richer, 
the  better.  The  soil  may  be  a  rich  sand,  sandy-loam, 
ith-y-loam,  or  a  gravelly-loam  ;  or  either  of  these  earths, 
of  common  quality,  when  strongly  manured,  will  answer. 
It  is  supposed  that  well  rotted  and  fermented  composts, 
formed  of  such  materials  as  are  most  suitable  to  the  soil, 
will  always  be  found  the  best  manure  for  this  root.  la 
April,  or  as  soon  as  the  grountl  is  sufficiently  dry  to  pul- 
verize well,  make  it  very  fine,  but  not  deep  ;  make  the 
rows  a  foot  apart,  and  scatter  the  seed  thinly  an  inch  or 
more  deep.  Then  fill  in  the  drills,  and  harden  the  sur- 
face with  the  back  of  a  shovel.  When  the  plants  are 
2  or  3  inches  high,  thin  them  to  4  or  5  inches.  Or 
make  the  drills  about  10  inches  apart,  each  way,  and 
drop  6  or  8  seed,  where  the  drills  intersect  each  other. 
Though  the  largest  onions  are  those  that  grow  singly, 
some  inches  apart,  those  that  are  more  crowded  produce 
large  crops.  A  small  quantity  of  ashes  and  sand  spread 
over  the  ground  after  planting,  is  useful.  Keep  the 
ground  clear  of  weeds  by  hoeing  and    weeding,  but,  do 

not    hoe    deep,   nor  raise    earth  about  the  plants. 

They  should  be  hoed  3  or  4  times  before  the  tops  have 
arrived  at  their  full  height.  After  the  bulbs  begin  to 
swell,  hoeing  must  be  discontinued.  It  is  said  to  be 
very  useful,  to  apply  soot  and  ashes  when  the  buld  be- 
20* 


"226 


ONIONS. 


gin  to  form.     Some  are  in  the  practice  of  beating  down 
the    tops,    after    the    roots   have   attained  considerable 
size,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  latter  grow  the  faster; 
but  the  practice  is  no  doubt  injurious.     When  the  stalks 
shrivel  and  fall    spontaneously,    the;f   have    ceased   to 
grow  and  should  then    be    pulled    up   and   laid    on    the 
ground  some  days  to  dry   and  harden.     If   the  weather 
should  prove  moist,  they  must  be  turned   or    they    will 
strike  new  roots  and   grow.     When  sufficiently  dry,  cut 
oif  the  tops,  carry  them  in   and  spread  them   thin  over 
the  floor  ;  here  let  them  remain  until  the    commence- 
ment of  cold  weather,  then  put  them  into  a  box  or  cask 
with  alternate  layers  of  dry  chaff  or  fine  straw,  and  set 
them  in  a  place  where  they    will  not  freeze.     A    little 
frost,    however,  will  not  essentially  injure  them,  unless 
they  are  moved  while  frozen  ;    but  it  is  better  to  keep 
them  in  a  temperature  a  little  above  the  t>eezing  point. 
Those  which  are  shipped  from  New-England,  are  usual- 
ly tied  up  in  wi<5ps   of  straw,  and  if  they  be  hung  up  in 
this  way  they  will  perhaps  keep  longer  than  any  other. 
If  they  incline  to  sprout,  sear  the  roots  with  a  hot  iron, 
which  will  slop  their  growth.     Those  which  have  thick 
necks  and  the   bulbous   part   small,  may  be   left   in   the 
ground  during  winter  :  Many  of  them  will  stand  the  frost, 
and    in   the  spring  may   be   taken  up   and  set  in  a  bed 
where  they  will  grow  to  be  good  onions.     At  all  events, 
they  are   good    for   nothing,     without  a  second  year's 
growth  ;  and  must  not  be  mixed   with  good  onions   lest 
they  cause  them  to  rot. 

To  obtain  seed  from  onions,  plant  them  very  early  in 
the  spring  in  bed.-^,  about  9  inches  apart.  Take  the 
largest  and  soundest  for  this  purpose,  and  keep  them 
clear  of  weeds  while  ijrowing.  When  they  have  come 
to  head,  tie  them  loosel}?  to  stakes  drove  down  for  that 
purpose  ;  otherwise  they  will  fall  to  the  ground,  and 
then  the  seeds  will  not  come  to  perfection.  In  a  garden 
there  always  ought  to  be  a  crop  to  succeed  seed  onions. 
Onions  are  not  an  exhausting  crop  ;  and  they  may  be 
constantly  nised  on  the  same  ground. 

Field  Culture  of  Onions.  Haviog  omitted  to  speak  of 
the  field  culture  of  this  valuable  root  in  the  foregoing 
part  of  this  work,  we  proceed  to  make  some  selection^, 


ONIONS.  227 

from  the  Farmer^s  Assistant^  which  may  prove  useful  to 
tho?'e  who  wish  to  cultivate  them  on  aa  extensive  s»ale. 

The  ground  should  be  perfectly  clear  of  stones  ;  and 
if  it  contain  the  seed  of  weeds,  these  should  be  first  era- 
dicated by  a  hoed  crop.  The  ploughin^s,  tor  preparing 
the  land,  in  the  first  instance,  need  not  be  deeper  than  3 
or  4  inches.  If  the  ground  be  suitably  mellow,  any  fur- 
ther ploughing*,  for  succeeding  crops,  will  be  unneces- 
sary ;  all  that  will  be  found  requisite,  will  be,  to  re-mel-' 
low  the  ground  as  deeply  aod  effectually,  as  it  can  be 
done  bj-^  a  heavy  iron-toothed  harrow,  having  the  teeth 
well  pointed,  and  turning  forward,  so  as  to  run  about  2 
inches  deep.  But,  where  the  ground  is  not  of  the  mellow 
kind,  it  should  be  prepared  as  at  first.  Whatever  manure 
is  applied,  should  be  very  finely  rotted,  clear  of  the  seeds 
of  weeds,  and  well  mixed  with  the  soil,  by. the  harrow. 
x\t\er  the  surface  is  finely  pulverized,  it  should  be  roll- 
ed, and  then  it  is  fit  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  The 
sowing  should  be  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  complete- 
ly prepared.  The  seeds  should  be  drilled  in,  in  rows 
about  10  or  12  inches  apart,  by  a  small  hand-drill 
plough.  This  machine  may  be  made  to  drill  in  2  rows 
at  once.  The  seeds  should  be  drilled  in  pretty  thickly, 
ibr  fear  they  may  not  all  vegetate.  If  the  plants  are 
too  thick,  they  must  be  thinned  by  hand,  when  the  first 
weeding  commences.  This  is  the  most  laborious  opera- 
tion in  the  whole  process  of  raising  this  root,  as  well  as 
some  others ;  but  here  we  propose  another  labor-saving 
implement,  in  the  shape  of  a  small  hand-weeding  plough. 
(See  Hand-Plough.)  Every  part  of  the  interval  be- 
tween the  rows  should  be  cut  with  this  plough  ;  after 
which  it  would  probably  be  found  requisite  to  use  a 
small  narrow  iron-toothed  rake,  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
pletely separating  the  roots  of  the  weeds  from  the  soil. 
After  this,  the  cleansing  of  the  rows  of  the  weeds,  which 
the  plough  could  not  touch,  must  be  performed  by  hand. 
When  the  weeds  begin  to  rise  again,  this  operation  must 
be  repeated,  and  again,  if  it  be  necessary,  as  no  weeds 
should  be  suffered  to  grow  among  the  crop. 

By  the  use  of  the  drill,  and  weeding-plough,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  one  ball  of  the  labor  usually  bestowed  would 
be  saved. 


228  BEETS. 

Onions  have  been  successfully  cultivated  in  light, 
black,  swampy  grounds,  when  laid  suffiiciently  dry  by 
small  open  ditches,  about  3  rods  apart. 

Mr.  Knight^  of  Newbury,  Mass.  raised  last  year,  651 
bushels  of  onions,  on  one  acre.  The  soil  is  a  rich  grav- 
elly loam,  with  a  gravel  bottom;  in  1821,  it  was  culti- 
vated with  onions,  and  cabbages;  and  was  manured  with 
about  5  cords  of  barn  manure,  and  produced  a  good 
crop;  after  the  crop  was  oif  the  ground,  there  were  5 
cords  of  barn  manure,  and  2  and  a  half  cords  of  leached 
ashes  ploughed  in  ;  in  April,  1822,  it  was  once  ploughed, 
and  sowed  ia  rows  14  inches  apart,  which  took  between 
3  and  4  pounds  oi"  seed ;  in  the  course  of  the  season  it 
was  hoed  between  the  rows  and  weeded  four  times  ;  in 
September  they  were  harvested.  The  entire  expense, 
including  <J  21  and  37  cents,  the  cost  of  manure,  was 
$  57  and  38  cents. 

BEETS. 

There  are  varieties  of  beets ;  but  the  best  are  the  red, 
and  the  redder  the  «weeter.  A  full  and  abundant  sup- 
ply of  this  very  excellent  vegetable,  ought  to  be  culti- 
vated in  every  garden.  Sow  them  early,  if  the  soil  be 
not  very  rich ;  but  they  may  be  sown  later,  where  it 
is  strong.  The  soil  should  be  well  mellowed  to  a  good 
depth.  A  soil  naturally  mellow  is  best  for  them.  Make- 
the  rows  a  foot  apart ;  sow  the  seed  pretty  thick  all 
along  the  drill;  and  when  the  plants  come  up,  thin  them 
to  8  inches  apart,  or  12,  if  the  ground  is  very  rich.  Mr. 
Cobbeit  advises  to  soak  the  seed  4  days  in  rain  water  be- 
fore it  is  sowed.  It  should  be  put  in  about  2  inches 
deep,  and  the  earth  pressed  upon  it.  The  seeds  gen- 
erally come  up  double,  but  should  be  separated  while 
young,  otherwise  both  roots  will  be  small.  Those  which 
are  taken  out  may  be  traasplanted ;  but  they  are  not 
apt  to  make  good  roots.  Beets  should  be  kept  clear  of 
weeds,  till  the  leaves  covering  the  ground  prevent  their 
further  growth.  The  under  leaves  may  be  broken  off 
towards  fall,  and  thrown  to  swine,  which  are  very  fond 
of  them. 

The  roots  should  be  dug  up  before  any  severe  frosts; 
none  of  the  fibrous  roots  should  be    taken    awav  ;    nor 


CARROTS    AND    PARSKIPS.  229 

should  the  tops  be  cut  close.  In  this  situation  they 
should  be  boiled,  to  prevent  any  loss  of  their  juice.  In 
winter,  they  are  best  kept  in  sand ;  and  they  should  not 
be  suffered  to  freeze,  as  this  makes  them  tough  and  un- 
fit for  use.  Beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  &lc.  designed  for 
the  table,  will  pay  well  in  their  relish  and  flavor,  if 
packed  in  sand,  in  dry  casks. 

The  Mangel  Wurtzel  Beet  may  be  cultivated  much  in 
the  same  manner,  excepting  the  seeds  may  be  further 
apart.  The  leaves  of  both  make  excellent  greens — - 
(^ee  Mangel  WurtzeU^  page  118.) 

CARROTS. 

Carrots  require  nearly  the  same  cultivation  as  beets. 
They  do  not,  however,  require  so  much  room.  They 
are  considered  best  for  culinary  purposes,  when  plant- 
ed as  late  as  the  last  of  May  ;  as  they  do  not  attain  their 
full  growth,  and  are  more  delicate  than  those  planted 
early.     (^See  Carrots^  page  120.) 

PARSNIPS. 

The  cultivation  is  the  same  as  for  carrots,  except  that 
they  require  the  soil  to  be  dug  deeper.  The  beet,  car- 
rot, and  parsnip,  all  call  for  a  generous,  rich  mould,  and 
bountiful  supply  of  manure  to  be  well  mixed  in  with  the 
soil  by  deep  digging. 

From  time  immemorial  our  fathers  in  the  country 
have  raised  the  parsnip  only  as  a  rarity,  to  be  sought 
for  a  few  days  in  the  spring.  And  few  farmers  think 
of  digging  this  vegetable  in  the  fall,  to  provide  their  ta- 
bles with  a  very  pleasant  and  useful  variety  in  winter. 
By  taking  it  up  in  the  l\ill,  we  not  only  gain  a  long  use 
of  the  plant,  but  we  have  it  in  greater  perfection  ;  for 
rarely  can  it  be  taken  up  in  the  spring  before  it  has 
sprouted,  and  the  inside  of  it  become  ligneous.  Indeed, 
all  roots  shouhl  be  dug  in  the  fall,  and  it  is  said,  if  pack- 
ed in  a  box  with  earth  from  the  beds  from  which  they 
were  taken,  that  the  same  moisture  may  be  preserved  ; 
they  can  be  kept  until  quite  the  beginning  of  summer, 
possessing  all  their  richness  of  juice  and  nutritious  qual- 
ities.    (^See  Parsnips,  page  123.) 


230  TURNIPS    AND    RADISHES. 

TURNIPS. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  raise  them  by  sowing  in  the 
spring- ;  they  are  never  good  till  fall.  Round  Turnips 
.should  be  sown  about  the  end  of  July,  in  rows  (in  a  gar- 
den) two  feet  apart,  and  thinned  out  to  a  foot  distance 
in  the  rows.  Good  and  deep  hoeinsr  and  one  diarorinof 
should  take  place  during  their  growth  ;  for,  a  large  tur- 
nip of  the  same  age  is  better,  wpight  for  weight,  than 
a  small  one.  The  Swedish  Turnip,  or  Ruta  Baga,  pre- 
ferred by  many  for  the  table,  ought  to  be  sown  early 
in  June,  in  rows  at  a  foot  apart,  and  thinned  to  3  inches 
in  the  rows.  About  the  middle  of  July  they  ought  to 
be  transplanted  3  feet  apart,  and,  during  their  growth, 
kept  clean,  and  dug  between  twice,  at  least,  as  deep  a» 
a  spade  can  go.  The  Swedish  Turnip  produces  excel- 
lent greens  in  the  spring,  and  at  a  very  early  season. — 
Leave  a  row  or  two  in  the  ground,  and,  when  the  win- 
ter is  about  to  set  in,  cover  them  all  over  with  straw  or 
ceder  boughs.  Take  these  off  when  the  winter  breaks 
up,  and  you  will  have  the  greens,  (^ee  Ruta  Baga^ 
poge  1 1 3 —  Turnips^  page  1 1 5.) 

RADISHES 

Require  a  sandy,  rich  soil.  Doubtless  there  might  be 
a  bed  prepared  for  them.  They  should  l>e  s  wn  Ibia  in 
little  drills,  6  inches  asunder,  as  early  as  possible,  in  the 
spring,  and  a  little  bed,  every  three  weeks,  during  the 
summer.  As  soon  as  the  central  cough  leaf  is  half  an 
inch  broad,  thin  them  to  2  or  3  inches  apart.  As  they 
are  uncertain  in  their  growth,  some  put  in  the  seeds  be- 
tween rows  of  other  plants;  and  they  are  so  soon  pulled 
up,  that  they  will  not  incommode  the  plants  among 
which  they  gro\v.  This  root  being  li;>.h]e  to  be  eaten 
)»y  worms,  the  following  msthod  is  recommended  for 
raising  them  :  Take  equal  qi:;mtities  of  buck-wheat 
br;?i;,  and  Ircsh  horso-dmig,  mix  them  well  and  plentifully 
in  th«-.  ground,  by  digging.  Suddenly  after  this,  a  great 
fermentation  will  be  produced,  and  numbers  of  toftd- 
stoo's  will  s?art  up  in  48  ho!]rs.  Dig  the  ground  over 
again,  and  sow  the  seed,  and  the  radishes  will  grow  with 
greai  rapidity,  and  be  free  from  insects.  Do  not  let  the 
seeds  of  dili'erent  species  be  mixed  ;   and  when  you  wish 


CUCUMBERS  AND  MELONS.  231 

to  raise  seed  of  any  particular  root,  take  care  that  it 
does  not  tlower  in  the  vicinity  of  any  other  kind.  The 
early  scarlet  is  the  best. 

CUCUMBERS. 

Light  sandy  soils  produce  the  best.  It  cannot  be  too 
rich,  nor  too  well  cultivated,  to  raise  a  great  crop — 
hoi^s*"  dung-  and  ashes  are  considered  best  for  them. — 
(»S>e  Radiihes  for  a  good  manure  for  them.^ 

It  is  generally  observed,  that  cucumbers,  squashes,  and 
melons  of  everj  kind,  may  be  planted  as  early  as  Indian 
corn  ;  but  in  order  to  have  them  as  early  as  possible,  a 
(ew  may  be  planted  8  or  10  days  before  the  usual  time 
of  planting  thnt  grain.  The  seeds  are  considered  be»t 
when  3  or  4  years  old,  and  they  are  said  to  be  benefit- 
ted by  soaking  them  in  a  solution  of  nitre,  and  covering 
them  with  soot.  Three  or  four  plants  f»re  enough  to 
stand  in  a  hole  together;  as  their  roots  are  said  to  ex- 
tend to  the  distance  of  10  feet  in  fine  earih  ;  therefore, 
ivhen  they  get  into  rough  leaf,  they  should  be  thinned 
to  this  number.  After  two  rough  indented  leaves  are 
produced,  a  pimple  that  portends  a  future  sprout,  on  the 
second  stalk  is  to  be  pinched  off,  to  prevent  its  growth  ; 
this  will  make  the  other  branches  grow  more  strong, 
and  be  more  prolific.  The  vines  should  be  so  conduct- 
ed as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  each  other. 
If  you  save  a  cucumber  for  seed,  let  it  be  the  first  fine 
fruit  that  appears.  The  plant  will  cease  to  bear  much 
after  this  fruit  becomes  yellowish. 

Cucumbers  are  rendered  more  wholesome  by  slicing 
them  into  cold  water.  See  Insects  for  the  method  of 
keeping  them  off  the  young  plants. 

MELONS 

Require  all  the  season  and  great  care  to  bring  them 
to  any  degree  of  perfection.  About  the  middle  of  May, 
prepare  a  piece  of  rich  sandy  ground,  well  exposed  to 
the  sun  ;  manure  it  highly  with  compost,  prepared  a 
year  at  least  before  it  is  used  ;  and  give  it  a  good  dig- 
ging, then  mark  it  out  into  squares  of  6  or  8  feet  every 
way  ;  at  the  angle  of  every  square,  dig  a  hole  12  inches 
deep  and  18  over,  into  which  put  7  or  8  inches  deep,  of 


232  SQUASHES     A!?D    ASPARAGUS. 

old  dung;  throw  thereon  about  4  inches  of  earth,  and 
mix  the  dung  and  earth  with  the  spade,  draw  the  re- 
mainder of  the  earth  over  the  mixture  so  as  to  t'orm  a 
round  hill  about  a  foot  broad  at  top.  Plant  in  each  near 
the  centre,  8  or  9  good  seeds,  distant  2  inches  Irom  one 
another,  and  cover  them  about  half  an  inch  deep.  When 
the  plants  are  in  their  rough    leaves,   thin  them  to  2.  or 

3  in  each  hill,  the  extra  number  in  some,  may  serve  to 
fill  vacancies  in  others  ;  draw  earth,  from  time  to  time, 
round  the  hills,  and  as  high  about  the  roots  of  the  plants 
as  the  seed  leaves  ;  when  fit,  stop  them  as  directed  for 
cucumbers;  after  which,  keep  the  ground,  by  frequent 
hoeings,  perfectly  free  from  weeds. 

The  ends  of  the  runners,  and  the  fruit  last  formed, 
should  be  taken  off',  in  order  that  the  fruit  first  formed 
may  have  more  nourishment.  The  same  method  can  be 
taken  to  keep  away  insects  as  for  cucumbers. 

Seeds  brought  from  the  southward  are  said  to  be  best. 
For  saving  the  seeds,  see  garden  seeds. 

SQUASHES. 

These,  in  all  their  varieties,  are  cultivated  like  Cu- 
cumbers.    (»See  Pumpkins  I28th  page.^ 

4ASPARAGUS. 

This  useful  plant  is  best  propagated  from  the  seeds, 
and  its  successful  culture  almost  entirel}"^  depends  on  the 
the  proper  quality  of  such  seed.  Hence,  some  of  the 
most  promising  buds  should  be  marked  with  a  stick,  and 
the  seeds  gathered  when  they  are  dead  ripe. 

To  make  a  bed,  open    a  trench   early  in  the  spring 

4  feet  wide,  and  one  foot  deep,  in  the  warmest  part  of 
the  garden.  Fill  the  trench  half  full  of  good  barn  dung, 
mud,  or  a  mixture  of  rich  earth  and  dung  ;  level  it,  and 
fill  up  the  trench  with  good  soil.  Draw  the  drills  10  or 
12  inches  apart  each  way,  and  in  the  angles  plant  2  or  3 
seed  about  an  inch  deep.  When  the  plants  have  been 
up  some  time,  they  must  be  thinned,  leaving  only  one 
of  the  strongest  in  each  place,  and  carefully  cleared  of 
weeds.  The  first  year  or  two  a  thin  crop  of  onions  may 
be  sowed  in  the  intervals.  When  the  haulm  is  yellow, 
in  the  fall,  and  before  the  frost  sets  in,  cut  it  off  cltse  to 


OYSTER    PLANT.  233 

liie  ground.  Lay  some  litter  on  the  bed  till  spring*,  to 
prevent  the  frost  Irom  being  too  long  coming  out  ofthe 
ground  in  the  spring.  When  the  frost  breaks  up,  throw 
sonie^ ashes,  or  some  other  manure  about  an  inch  deep 
over  the  bed,  having  first  loosened  the  top  of  the  bed 
with  a  fork  about  3  inches  deep,  and  raked  it.  Upon 
this  manure,  throw  a  layer  of  earth  over  the  bed,  out 
of  the  paths,  and  break  it  fine  at  the  time.  Continue 
this  management  every  succeeding  year.  When  the 
bed  becomes  too  high  by  the  constant  addition  of  dung, 
&c.  part  ofthe  earth  may  be  pared  off  in  the  spring,  be- 
fore the  plants  shoot,  and  the  bed  covered  again  with  a 
thin  compost  of  rotten  dung.  The  third  year  some 
shoots  or  buds  will  be  large  enough  for  cutting.  When 
these  are  about  3  or  4  inches  high,  they  should  be  cut  ; 
slipping  the  knife  down  almost  perpendicularly,  close  to 
each  shoot,  and  cutting  ofi^  slantingly  a  few  inches  within 
the  ground,  taking  care  not  to  wound  the  successional 
buds  advancing  from  the  same  root.  Terminate  the 
general  cutting,  as  soon  as  the  shoots  begin  to  appear 
small,  or  weaker  than  usual.  In  New-England,  it  is 
supposed  they  may  be  cut  till  about  the  middle  of  June. 
Asparagus  being  of  maratime  origin,  a  little  brine  or 
salt,  may  now  and  then  be  sprinkled  on  the  beds  with 
advantage.  The  beds  will  continue  to  bear  veil  to  10 
or  12  years,  and  with  proper  management  20  or  30 
years. 

It  is  advisable  to  have  two  beds,  the  one  30  situated 
as  to  come  on  as  early  as  possible,  the  other  late.  The 
warmest  situation  is  necessary  for  the  former  j  for  the 
latter  the  coolest,  or  that  which  is  shaded. 

OYSTER  PLANT. 

The  salsafy,  or  oyster  plant,  is^a  vegetable  of  easy  pro- 
duction, and  universally  eaten,  when  introduced  to  the 
table.  It  resembles  a  small  parsnip  in  iis  appearance. 
It  is  raised  annually  from  seeds,  requiring  no  more  care 
than  the  carrot.  It  bears  a  tolerable  crop.  In  Europe 
it  is  eaten  both  boiled  and  f/ied.  In  thi ;  country  it  is  par- 
boiled, and  then  fried  either  in  butter  or  without.  In 
its  taste,  it  so  strongly  resembles  the  oyster,  that  when 
sliced,  and  fried  in  butter,  it  can  scarcely  be  distinguished 

21      " 


234         LETTUCE,  CRESS  AND  NASTURTIUM. 

from  it.     It  is  in  eating  from  November  to  May.     Like 
the  parsnip  it  will  stand  out  the  whole  winter. 

LETTUCE.  ^ 

As  early  in  the  spring  as  possible,  (March,)  prepare  a 
ypot  in  a  warm  situation,  and  sow  earl}'  kinds  of  lettuce. 
Continue  to  sow  of  the    best    kind   every   two    weeks, 
in  rich  ground,  and  in  open  situations,  that  you  may  have 
a  regular  supply.     The  different  sorts  should  generally 
be  sown  separate,  and  in  digging  the  ground,  let  the  earth 
be  well  pulverised.     Sow  the  seed  on  the  surface,  even, 
and  not  too  thick,  and  rake  them  in  lightly,  taking  care 
not  to  draw  the  earth  in  heaps.     Scatter  a  few  seeds 
among  other  general  crops,  and  they  will  grow  large  and 
tine.     If  the  early  sown  lettuce  stands  thick,  draw  it  out ; 
and  .when  the  ground  is  fully  moistened  with  rain,  ma- 
nure it,  dig   it  a  spade  deep,  and  transplant  some  of  the 
best.     There  is  nothing  that  hears  transplanting  better, 
und  the  heads  will  grow  larger,  and  will  not  so  soon  run  to 
seed.     They  should  stand  afoot  from   each  other,   that 
the  weeds  may  be  destroyed  with  a  hoe,   and   the   soil 
kept  loo^-e  around  them.     Water  them  occasionally,   till 
they  have  taken  good  root.     Such  as  are  lelt  for  heading, 
where  sown,  should  in  May   be    thinned   to    10    or    12 
inches  distance  every  way,  and  those  among  other  cr/)ps, 
to  3  feet.     It  is  of  much  importance  to  have  good  sorts, 
and  such  as  will  not  run  to  seed  before   they    attain    full 
growth  ;  these  are  not  commonly  to  be  met  with,  and  are 
worth  procuring. 

CRESS. 

Cress,  or  Pepper  Grass,  is  very  good  in  salads  along 
with  lettuce  and  white  mustard.  It  should  be  sown  in 
drills,  pretty  thick  (as  should  the  white  mustard)  and  cut 
young.  A  small  quantity,  in  the  salad-season,  should  be 
sown  every  ten  days,  and  slightly  covered. 

NASTURTIUM,   OR  INDIAN  CRESS. 

This,  for  the  sake  of  ornament,  and  that  no  small  one 
in  a  kitchen  garden,  should  be  where  thin  stalks  may 
find  support.  The  seeds,  when  green,  lorm  a  iavorite 
pickle  ;  they  are  often  called  capers  and  substituted  for 


MUSTARD,  PEPPERS,  SAGE  AND  PARSLEY.  235 

fhem.  The  young  leaves  are  us§d  in  salads.  The  seeds 
should  he  sown  Ciirly,  and  the  plants  require  pretty 
long  bushy  sticks. 

MUSTARD. 

This  plant  requires  a  soil  sufficiently  strong  for  tur- 
nips. Let  the  ground  be  well  prepared  early  in  the 
spring,  and  sow  the  seed  broadcast.  When  the  plants  are 
a  few  inches  high,  thin  them  to  8  or  10  inches  apart, 
and  destroy  the  weeds  with  the  hoe.  When  the  lower 
seeds  are  ripe,  the  middle  seeds  green,  and  the  tops  in 
blosiom,  cut  them,  bind  them  in  small  bundles,  and  lay  - 
them  in  piles  for  a  few  days.  In  this  situation  the  green 
seed  will  soon  ripen.  The  best  mustard  for  culture  is 
the  common  or  black. 

(^Siaapis  nigra.^  Every  farmer  ought  to  raise  this 
useful  plant,  as  imported  mustard  is  often  adulterated. 
The  culture  of  mustard  is  protitable. 

PEPi»ERS. 

The  seeds  of  peppers  germinate  tardilj'",  and  should 
therefore  be  put  into  the  ground  as  early  in  May,  as 
possible.  Thsy  will  not  flourish  unless  the  land  is  good, 
and  highly  manured.  For  this  use,  manure  from  the 
hog-&tye^or  hen-roost  is  the  best,  make  it  fine,  and  nicely 
incorporate  it  with  the  soil — level  the  surface  with  the 
rake  and  plant  the  seed  in  drills  13  inches  apart,  sow  it 
thick,  cover  it  half  an  inch  with  fine  earth,  and  press  it 
down.  When  grown  an  inch  or  two,  thin  them  to  G  or 
8  inches,  and  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds.  The 
large  heart  shaped  kind  is  generally  used  for  pickling. 

SAGK 

Is  raised  from  seed,  or  from  slips.  To  have  it  at 
hand  for  winter  it  is  necessary  to  dry  it ;  and  it  ought  to 
be  cut,  for  this  purpose,  when  beginning  to  bloom,  as 
indeed,  is  the  case  with  all  other  herbs. 

PARSLEY. 

Sow  it  in  Tory  clean  ground.  A  bed  G  feet  long,  the 
seed  sown  in  drills  at  8  inches  apart,  will  probably  be 
eaough  for  a  family.     To  preserve  it  green  through  the 


236   BROOM  CORN  AND  FRUITS  CULTIVATED  IN  GARDENS. 

winter,  put  straw,  or  leaves  of  trees,  6  inches  thick  on 
the  bed,  and  lay  on  something  to  prevent  the  covering- 
from  being"  blown  off.  This  will  preserve  its  leaves 
from  being  destroyed  ;  and,  when  you  go  to  get  it,  you 
must  lift  up  the  covering,  of  a  part  of  the  bed. 

BROOM    CORN. 

This  requires  the  best  oi'land  and  tillage.  The  place 
assigned  for  it  should,  early  in  May,  be  laid  up  in 
small  ridges,  that  it  may  dry  and  become  warm.  About 
the  20th  of  that  month,  level  down  the  ridges,  pulverise 
the  soil,  and  intimately  mix  the  manure — then  stretch 
the  line,  and  with  the  small  hoe  make  a  furrow  2  inches 
deep,  scatter  the  seed,  and  cover  it  v.ith  light  earth — 
Then  move  back  your  line  3  feet^  and  in  this  way  plant 
whatever  quantity  you  please.  When  up,  thin  plants,  re- 
serving those  only  which  appear  stout  and  healthful. — 
That  seed  only  which  is  heavy,  and  of  a  bright,  shining 
colour,  is  worth  planting.  The  best  seed  will  lose  its 
vitality  in  4  or  5  years.     The  grain  is  good  for  poultry. 

FRUITS    CULTIVATED    IN    GARDENS. 

The  useful  and  the  agreeable  concur  to  recommend 
the  cultivation  of  fruit  in  gardens  ;  as  the  plants,  being 
perennials,  require  only  occasional  care,  little  trouble, 
and  hardly  any  expense. 

Propagation  by  cuttings,  suckers,  and  layers,  may  be 
practised  iu  the  early  part  of  April  ;  or  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground. 

Cuttings  must  be  taken  from  shoots  of  the  last  year, 
and  it  is,  in  most  cases,  best  if  they  have  a  joint  or  two 
of  the  last  year's  wood,  at  the  bottom  of  them.  The 
cutting  should  have  altogether,  about  6  joints,  or  buds  ; 
and  3  of  these  should  be  under  ground  when  plant- 
ed. The  cuts  should  be  performed  with  a  sharp  knife, 
so  that  there  may  be  nothing  ragged  or  bruised  about 
either  wood  or  bark.  Make  a  hole  sufficiently  deep 
and  large  to  admit  the  cutting  without  ruffling  the  bark  ; 
let  those  which  are  most  difficult  to  grow  be  set  as  deep 
as  12  inches  ;  those  less  difficult,  0,  8,  or  10  ;  any  vacu- 
ity left  ii)  the  hole  must  be  filled  up  with  fresh  earth,  and 
pressed  down  close  to  the   cutting.     Let  them  be  fre- 


FRUITS    CULTIVATED    IN    GARDENS.  237 

qnently  watered  when  the  ground  is  dry,  until  they  have 
got  shoots  several  inches  lon<^.  If  the  weather  is  hot 
cover  the  ground  with  leaves,  or  muck,  (mulch,)  or 
something  to  keep  the  ground  cool.  Where  cuttings  ai»o 
to  be  kept  some  time  before  setting,  let  the  cut  ends 
be  kept  in  moist  earth,  and  soaked  in  water  before  they 
are  set.  Plant  them  in  rows  2  feet  asunder,  at  6  or  8  in- 
ches distance  in  the  row. 

Suckers.  Many  kinds  of  shrubby  plants,  furnisfc  abun- 
dance of  suckers  from  the  roots  for  propagation.  They 
may  be  separated  from  the  parent  plants,  each  with  some- 
roots,  and  planted  either  in  nursery  rows  for  a  year  or 
two,  or  (he  largest,  at  once,  where  they  are  to  remain. 
They  are  considered  inferior  to  cuttings. 

Layers.  Trees  and  shrubs,  which  cannot  be  easily 
propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings,  &lc.  may  nevertheless  be 
propagated  by  layers.  Take  shoots  of  the  last  year's 
growth,  bend  them  to  the  earth,  and  bury  them  half  a 
foot  deep  in  a  good  mellow  soil ;  fasten  them  with  hook- 
ed pegs  to  prevent  their  rising,  and  bend  the  tops  so  as 
to  bring  them  above  the  surface.  A  slit  upwards  should 
be  made  in  that  part  of  the  twig  which  lies  deepest,  or 
u  wire  drawn  tightly  round  it  there,  lo  prevent  the  sap 
from  mountmg  too  fast.  Let  the  ground  be  covered 
with  stones,  &lc.  to  keep  it  moist,  and  let  it.  be  watered 
if  necessary.  When  the  twigs  have  struck  root,  they 
may  be  cut  off  in  the  spring  and  transplanted. 

Transplanting^  <^'C.  In  planting  shrubs  of  every  kind, 
Jet  all  convenient  expedition  be  made  in  doing  it,  so  that 
they  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are 
taken  up ;  that  their  roots  may  not  be  dried  by  the  sun 
and  wind  ;  but  when  brought  from  iiuy  distance,  and  can- 
not be  immediately  planted,  untie  the  bundles,  lay  the 
roots  in  a  trench,  and  cover  them  with  earth,  to  lie,  till 
the  places  allotted  are  ready  to  receive  them. 

Dig  a  round  hole  tor  each  shrub,  from  half  a  yard  to  2 
feet  or  more  wide,  according  to  the  size  of  the  roots, 
and  a  spade  deep,  capacious  enough  to  receive  them 
freely  ;  and  loosen  the  bottom  well.  Prune  off  broken 
•or  bruised  roots,  and  irregular  productions  of  the  heads; 
^nd  place  them  in  the  holes  upright,  break  the  earth 
well,  and  throw  it  in  equally  about  the  roots,  whick 
21* 


238  .    CURUANTS. 

cover  a  proper  depth,  shaking"  the  plants  gentlj^  as  the 
earth  is  filled  in,  tread  it  moderately,  and  place  some 
long"  litter  on  the  suri'ace,  to  preserve  moisture.  Sup- 
port the  tallest  with  stakes. 

The  g-round  must  always  he  kept  clear  of  weeds  ;  for, 
whatever  the}'  take  is  just  so  much  taken  from  the  fruit, 
either  in  quantit}^,  or  in  quality,  or  in  both.  Taking  oif 
the  earth  round  the  roots  of  fruit  bearing  shrubs  and 
vines,  throwing  in  soap-suds,  that  has  been  uped  in  wash- 
ing, and  then  replacing  the  earth,  has  a  most  beneficial 
effect. 

As  the  time  of  planting  varies  in  diiTerent  seasons,  the 
only  sure  guide  is,  to  phmt  all  kinds  of  shrubs,  k,c.  as 
soon  as  their  buds  begin  to  swell,  or  a  little  before. 

CURRANTS. 

Currants  are  easily  propngaled  from  cuttings.  (.Sp« 
Cuttings.)  They  will  furnish  themselves  with  roots,  and 
bear  fruit  the  second  3'^ear.  They  will  do  very  well 
even  on  light  and  sandy  soils  ;  but,  pei"haps,  the  best 
soil  for  them  is  a  good  mellow  sandy  loam.  With  prop- 
er culture,  however,  they  will  grow  pretty  well  on  al- 
most an}^  soil  that  is  not  too  hard  and  poor.  When  the 
bush  has  stood  2  years  in  the  nursery,  plant  it  where  it 
is  to  stand;  and  take  care  that  it  has  only  one  stem. — 
Let  lio  limbs  grow  nearer  than  6  inches  of  the  ground. 
Prune  the  shrub  every  year;  and  keep  it  thin  of  wood, 
keep  the  middle  open  ;  the  limbs  extended  ;  and  when 
these  get  to  about  3  fett  in  length,  cut  off,  every  spring, 
all  the  last  years  shoots.  Cultivate  and  manure  the 
ground.  It  will  be  most  convenient  in  a  garden  to  set 
them  next  the  fence.  By  planting  some  on  the  south, 
and  some  on  the  north  side  of  a  wall,  you  can  have  the 
fruit  from  June  to  October. 

To  cultivate  them  upon  an  extensive  scale  for  the 
purpose  of  making  wine  ;  set  the  bushes  in  rows,  6  or  8 
feet  between  each,  and  about  3  feet  between  each  bush, 
with  intervals  of  proper  width  and  at  regular  distances 
for  passing  across  the  rows.  It  is  estimated  tliat  an  acre, 
well  cultivated,  would  probably  yield,  on  an  average, 
a  quantity  of  fruit  sufficient  to  make  1000  gallons  of 
wine  yearly.  The  expense  of  making  this  wiae  is  about 
SO  cents  a  gallon. 


GOOSBER'PJES.  239 

Vurrani  Wine.  To  miike  this  wine,  gather  the  cur- 
rants when  tally  ripe,  let  them  be  picked  in  fair  weather 
and  with  as  nauch  expedition  as  possible  ;  break  them 
well  in  a  tub  or  vat,  (some  have  a  mill  constructed  for 
the  purpose,  consisting-  of  a  hopper,  fixed  upon  two  lig- 
num vitie  rollers,)  press  and  measure  the  juice,  having 
first  strained  it  through  a  woollen  cloth;  to  every  gal- 
lon of  pure  currant  juice,  add  two  gallons  of  cold  water, 
then  to  every  gallon  of  this  mixture,  immediately  put 
three  pounds  of  go  d  brown  sugar,  (some  think  it  better 
with  three  and  one  fourth  pounds,)  stir  it  well,  till  the 
sugar  is  quite  dissolved,  and  then  till  up  the  cask.  If  you 
can  possibly  prevent  it,  let  not  your  juice  stand  over 
night,  as  it  should  not  ferment  before  mixture.  Observe, 
that  the  casks  be  sweet  and  clean,  and  such  as  never 
have  had  either  beer  or  cider  in  them,  and,  if  new,  let 
Ihem  be  first  well  seasoned.  The  cask  must  nit  be  so 
full  as  to  work  over.  Lay  the  bung  lightly  on  the  hole, 
to  keep  out  flies,  &.c.  fn  three  weeks  or  a  month,  the 
bung-hole  may  be  stopped  up,  leaving  only  the  vent- 
hole  open  till  it  has  fully  done  working;  then  stop  it  up 
tight,  and  in  six  months  it  will  be  fit  for  bottling  or  for 
use.  Like  other  wines,  however,  it  improves  much  by 
age. 

If  you  intend  to  make  30  gallons  agreeably  to  this  re- 
ceipt, you  will  require  8  gallons  of  juice,  16  of  water, 
and  72  lbs.  of  sugar. 

GOOSBERRIES. 

Goosberrles  require  a  deep  and  rich  loam  :  the  ground 
must  be  well  manured  and  kept  free  from  weeds  ;  and 
be  careful  to  plant  none  but  those  that  are  of  a  good 
kind.  The  best  mode  of  propagating  them,  is  by  cut- 
tings or  layers.  (/See  Layers^  Cuttings,  and  TranspIa7ithirrA 
Early  in  the  spring,  spade  carefully  around  the  roots, 
turn  over  the  soil,  and  pull  out  all  grass  that  may  grow 
near  them.  Prune  them  by  cutting  out  every  worn-out, 
decayed,  or  irregular  branch — let  none  be  permitted  to 
grow  across  each  other;  but  let  all  be  pruned  to  some 
regulan  order — cut  out  all  the  super-abundant,  latteral 
shoots  of  the  last  summer,  close  to  the  ground,  or  old 
wood,  only  retaining  here  and  there  a  good  one,  to  sup- 


210  RASPBERRIES    AND    GRAPE    VINES. 

ply  the  place  of  casual,  worn-out  bearers.  Never  per- 
mit the  extremities  of  the  branches  to  stand  nearer  than 
6  or  8  inches  of  each  other.  The  best  form  for  a  well 
trained  goosberry  or  currant  bush,  is  that  of  a  wine 
glass. 

Goosberry  Wine  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  currant 
xvine,  except  that  one  third  less  sugar  is  required.  In 
picking  the  berries,  take  none  that  have  iallen  upon  the 
jjround,   or  that  have  been  shaded  and  grown  sour. 

RASPBERRIES 

Are  raised  from  suckers,  though  they  may  be  raised 
from  cuttings.  The  suckers  of  this  year  are  planted 
out  in  rows,  6  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  2  feet  apart,  ia 
the  rows.  This  is  done  in  the  fall,  or  early  in  the  spring. 
At  the  time  of  planting,  they  should  be  cut  down  to 
within  a  foot  of  the  ground.  They  will  bear  a  little, 
and  they  will  send  out  several  suckers,  w  hich  will  bear 
the  next  year.  About  four  is  enough  to  leave,  and  those 
of  the  strongest.  These  should  be  cut  off  in  the  fall, 
or  early  in  the  spring,  to  within  four  feet  of  the  ground, 
and  should  be  tied  to  a  small  stake.  The  next  year 
more  suckers  come  up,  which  are  treated  in  the  same 
%vay.  Fifty  clumps  are  enough,  if  well  managed. — 
There  are  white  and  read  :  some  like  one  best,  and 
some  the  other.  To  have  them  tine,  you  must  dig  in  ma- 
nure in  autumn,  and  keep  the  ground  clean  during  sum- 
mer, by  hoeing. 

GRATE    VINES. 

Wherever  any  kinds  of  grapes  gro«v  wild,  they  may 
be  there  cultivated  to  advantage. 

The  spots  most  favorable  for  them,  are  the  sides  of 
hills,  sloping  to  the  south,  with  a  loose  and  mellow  soil, 
but  not  liable  to  be  washed  bv  heavy  rains.  Stiff  soils 
are  not  good  ;  though  by  carting  on  sand,  and  other  loos- 
ening manures,  they  will  answer  tolerably  well.  The 
ground  must  be  well  mellowed  by  ploughing,  and  mixed 
with  sand,  if  not  naturally  sandy,  and  such  manures  as 
will  keep  it  rich  and  mellow. 

The  best  mode  of  r-.i-ing  the  plants,  is  by  cuttings, 
takea  from  the  vines  at  the  fall  pruning,  and  preserved 


GR-APE  VINES. 


241 


in  earth,  with  litter  over  their  upper  parts,  to  protect 
them  from  frost,  till  spring.  These  may  be  made  either 
cf  one  eye  or  bud,  or  of  four  or  five,  attached  to  a  small 
portion  of  the  two  years'  old  wood,  forming  a  cutting  in 
the  shape  of  a  small  mallet,  in  May,  take  them  out 
and  wash  them  from  dirt,  and  if  they  are  very  dry,  let 
them  stand  with  the  lower  parts  in  water  six  or  eight 
hours.  Open  the  holes  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet  from  each 
other,  which  will  allow  about  eight  feet  for  the  vines 
to  run  each  way  on  the  trellis  or  wall,  and  put  3  cut- 
tings into  each  spot,  a  few  inches  apart,  to  insure  the 
setting  of  one.  When  this  is  ascertained,  the  two  weak- 
est must  be  withdrawn.  Lay  the  cuttings  a  little  slop- 
ing, that  their  tops  may  incline  to  the  vvall  or  stakes  to 
which  they  are  to  be  tied  :  they  must  be  put  in  so  deep 
that  the  uppermost  eyes  may  be  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  They  should  be  kept  moist,  but  not  wet. 
(/See  Cuttings.')  One  bud  only  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
the  first  year  ;  the  plant  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  ; 
the  earih  kept  light ;  and  as  soon  as  the  shoot  produces 
latterals,  they  should  be  pinched  off,  but  not  so  close  as 
to  injure  the  vine,  and  the  shoot  tied  to  the  sunny  side  of 
a  stake.  By  the  first  of  November,  this  shoot  may  be 
cut  down  to  two  eyes,  not  reckoning  the  lowermost  one 
next  the  old  wood.  In  our  climate,  it  is  probably  best  to 
take  down  the  vines,  for  the  first  three  years,  about  the 
middle  of  November,  if  the  weather  is  dry,  and  cover 
them  slightly  with  earth,  forming  a  slope  to  prevent  the 
rains  from  penetrating.  The  head  must  not  be  covered 
with  earth,  but  with  chaff,  or  some  such  dry  stuff.  The 
plants  should  not  be  uncovered  till  the  middle  of  April. 
The  second  years  growth  should  only  exhibit  2  branches 
trained.  The  good  eyes  will  all  shoot  forth  in  ihe  spring  ; 
and  let  them  all  grow  to  the  length  of  about  eight  inch- 
es before  you  select  the  two  most  proper.  Those  that 
are  selected  must  be  fastened  to  the  wall  or  trelli'',  as 
they  extend  in  length.  The  trellis  is  to  be  5  feet  high, 
and  js  to  consist  of  a  row  of  liltle  locust  posts,  about  .^ 
inches  square,  put  2  feet  into  the  ground,  and  placed  about 
3  feet  from  each  other.  Chock  the  branches  of  tlie 
second  year's  growth  at" about  5  feet,  pinchiijg  ^ff  the  lat- 
erals, &c.  at  about  4  inches,     in  the  fall,  trim  the   vines 


242  WINE. 

again.  Now  you  have  two  main  branches  to  trim,  and 
these  should  be  cut  down  to  within  4  or  5  good  eyes  of 
hist  year's  wood.  The  third  year  presents  two  main 
branches,  each  furnished  with  4  or  5  eyes.  Proceed  as 
before  in  the  choice  of  shoots,  training  only  two  from 
each  branch.  Thus  you  will  have  four  main  branches 
this  year.  If  the  vines  begin  to  bear  this  3'ear,  pluck  oif 
n'iarly  all  the  clusters  while  young,  to  prevent  the  vine 
from  being  injured.  With  respect  to  cropping  and  prun- 
ing the  vine,  be  always  careful  to  check  its  aspiring  na- 
ture, and  keep  it  of  humble  size,  by  which  means  it  is 
always  easy  to  be  managed,  and  less  subject  to  be  injured 
by  violent  winds.  In  the  fourth  year,  training  again  two 
branches  from  each  trained  branch  of  the  previous  year, 
you  will  have  8  branches  to  each  vine.  You  therefore  pro- 
ceed as  before  in  humbling  the  vine;  and  proportioning 
its  quantity  of  fruit  to  its  abiJit}' to  bear;  and  remem- 
ber not  to  let  fhe  vines  bear  all  the  fruit  they  put 
forth,  until  they  are  fully  able  to  do  it  without  injury  to 
them  afterwards.  No  more  shoots  should  be  permit- 
ted to  grow  than  can  be  laid  in  clear  and  handsome, 
and  without  confusion  on  the  trellis,  and  so  as  to  ad- 
mit the  sun  and  air  freely  among  the  branches.  All 
this  time  the  ground  is  constantly  to  be  kept  light  and 
mellow,  and  perfectly  clear  of  weeds  and  grass.  For 
this  purpose,  straw,  chaff,  flax-shives,  &,c.  spread  over 
the  ground,  will  keep  it  mellow  and  moist,  and  pre- 
vent its  washing.  It  is  said  that  a  vine  properly  man- 
aged will  not  decline  under  50  years. 

By  packing  grapes  in  dry  saw-dust  or  bran,  they 
can  be  presefrved  a  long  time. 

WINE. 

To  make  good  wine,  the  grapes  of  the  same  -kind 
should  be  gathered  at  different  times.  The  tirst  should 
be  of  the  ripest  clusters.  Those  which  are  not  suffic- 
iently ripe,  must  be  gathered  at  another  time  ;  the  green 
and  rotten  ones  must  be. rejected.  Wines  of  different 
colors  are  made  from  the  same  grape.  To  make  white 
wine,  grapes  sufficient  ibr  a  pressing  are  gathered  early 
in  a  damp,  misty  morning,  while  the  dew  is  on.  When 
the  sua  comes  out  warm  the  gathering  is  diicontiuucd. 


WINE.  £43 

Thev  must  be  iminediately  carried  to  the  press  or  vat, 
stripped  from  the.  stems,  and  pressed  out  without  delay. 
The  first  pressing  should  be  gentle.  After  the  first 
pressing,  the  press  is  raised,  the  cake  cut  up  and  press- 
ed again.  The  cutting  and  pressing  is  to  be  repeated, 
as  often  as  you  find  the  liquor  to  run. 

In  making  red  wines  of  the  same  grapes,  they  are  to 
be  gathered  when  the  sun  shines  the  hottest.  They  are 
washed  in  a  vat,  and  are  then  to  lie  in  the  liquor  for  a 
length  of  time,  which  must  dt^pend  on  the  heat  of  the 
weather,  the  flavor  of  the  musk^  and  the  height  of  color 
intended  to  be  given.  They  are  to  be  stirred  irequently, 
the  better  to  raise  a  fermentation  and  redden  the  liquor. 
After  laying  as  long  as  is  thought  proper,  it  is  poured 
oft,  strained,  and  put  into  casks.  Afterwards  the  re- 
mainder of  the  grapes  in  the  vat,  is  put  into  the  press, 
and  undergoes  the  pressings  and  cuttings  before  men- 
tioned. 

The  finest  wines  will  work  the  soonest,  and  the  fer- 
mentation will  take  10  or  12  days,  according  to  the  kind 
of  Avine,  and  the  season    of  the   year.     Those    that  are 
backward  in   fermenting  may   be  quickened,    by  putting 
into  them  a  little  of  the  froth  or  yeast  that  works  from 
others.     During   fermentation,    the    bung-holes    of   the 
casks  are   to  be  left  open,  and  should  be  closed  when  it 
abates,   which   is  known   by  the  froth  ceasing  to  rise  so 
fast  as  before.     The    cask   is  also  then  to   be   filled  to 
within  2  inches  of  the  top,  and  a  vent-hole  left   open  to 
carry  off  all  that  is  thrown  up  afterwards.     The  filling 
of  the  cask  should  be    regularly   done  every   two  days, 
for  about  twelve  days,  in  order  that  the  foulness  thrown 
up  by  the  continued  fermentation  may  be  thrown  out  at 
the  vent-hole,    or  it    will  fall  back  and  prevent    its  be- 
coming clear.     After  this  the  cask  should  be    filled  to 
within  an  inch  of  the  bung,  every  5th  or  6th  day,  for  a 
month;  and  then  once  a  fortnight,  for  three  months  lon- 
ger.    Where  the  fermentation  is  entirely  over,  the  casks 
are  to  be  filled  up,  and  this   is  to  be    repeated  once  a 
month   as  long  as    they  remain   in  the    cellar.      They 
should  be  filled   with   wine  of  the  same  kind  which  they 
contain,  which  may  be  kept  in  bottles  for  the  purpose; 
and  the  vent-hole  should   be  stopped  when  the  fermen- 
tation is  over. 


244  WINE. 

The  first  drawing  off  from  the  lees  is  done  about  the 
niddie  of  December,  and  the  casks  containing  the  liq- 
uor drawn  off,  should  stand  without  the  least  disturbance, 
by  shaking,  until  the  middle  of  February,  when  the  liq- 
uor should  be  again  drawn  off  to  other  casks.  If  there  be 
then  still  so  much  lees  as  to  endnnger  their  contracting 
a  putrid  taint,  draw  off  again  in  due  season.  Sometimes 
it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  racking  several  times  ; 
but  let  the  casks  be  kept  full,  and  let  no  wines  of  dis- 
similar qualities  be  mixed. 

Turbid  wines  are  tined  by  isinglass,  or  by  putting  a 
pound  or  two  of  fresh  bloody  meat  into  them. 

YV' here  wine  has  become  sour,  let  some  salt  of  tartar 
be  mixed  with  it,  just  before  it  is  used,  which  will  neu- 
tralize the  acid. 

In  summer,  cool,  clear  days,  with  northerly  winds,  are 
the  best  limes  for  drawing  off  wines. 

For  white  wines,  the  casks  must  be  new,  to  prevent 
their  coloring  the  liquor,  but  red  wines  may  be  put  into 
any  casks,  provided  they  are  sweet  and  clean.  Wine 
should  not  be  bottled,  till  it  is  clear  and  fine  and  all  fer- 
mentation subsided. 

Good  wine  may  be  made  with  our  native  grapes  ;  those 
Tvhich  ripen  in  September.  For  a  barrel  (iJO  gallons) 
take  two  bushels,  a  little  heaped;  mash  them  well  in  a 
suitable  vessel,  adding  a  considerable  quantity  of  water, 
and  press,  or  squeeze  through  a  cloth.  In  this  mixture 
dissolve  48  pounds  oi"  good  brown  sugar :  then  put  it  into 
the  barrel,  and  fill  up  with  Avater.  The  after  manage- 
ment, time  of  bunging,  &;c.  the  same  as  for  currant 
wine. 


INSECTS. 


Of  all  tlie  enemies  which  agricultural  pursuits  have 
to  encounter,  none  are  equal  to  the  insect  tribe.  The 
injuries  sustained  from  these  hostile  myriads  are  of  aa 
extent,  amount  and  nature,  bejond  what  a  superficial  ob- 
server is  aware  of.  Immense  numbers  of  these  prey 
upon  the  labors  of  the  farmer,  against  the  ravages  of 
which  ii  is,  in  many  instances,  difficult  to  provide  ade- 
quate remedies.  But  it  is  a  fortunate  circumstance,  ob- 
serves the  New-England  Farmer^  that  the  remedies  pre- 
scribed against  the  ravages  of  one  kind  of  insect,  will 
frequently  be  found  effectual  against  every  other  sort. 

Among  the  substances,  which  are  either  offensive  or 
fatal  to  all  kinds  of  insects,  may  be  numbered  sulphur, 
elder,  tobacco,  quicklime,  lime  water,  soot,  unleached 
wood-ashes,  strong  lie,  tar  or  turpentine,  or  water  im- 
pregnated with  those  substances,  common  salt  finely 
pulverized,  brine,  old  urine,  boiling  water  apphed  im- 
mediately before  planting,  &c.  kc. 

Quick  hme  and  even  strong  ashes  may  injure  tender 
vegetables  ;  the  safest  way,  therefore,  is  to  apply  such 
caustic  and  corroding  substances  to  the  soil,  some  time 
before  the  seed  is  put  into  the  ground. 

Yellow  striped  Bug.  Set  an  onion  in  the  centre  of  a 
hill  of  cucumbers,  squashes,  melons,  &c.  and  it  will  ef- 
fectually keep  off  this  insect :  or  sprinkle  the  plants 
with  a  little  sulphur,  Scotch  snuff,  or  gypsum. 

Grubs.  Very  injurious  to  Indian  corn.  Most  of  the 
articles  before  mentioned,  either  boiled  in,  or  diluted 
with  water,  and  applied  just  before  a  rain,  will  drive 
them  away. 

Top,  or  Spindle-worms.     White  worms,  that  eat  off  the 
stem,  which  forms  the  top  of  Indian  corn.     Sprinkle  the 
corn  with  weak  lie. 
22 


246  INSECTS. 

Timber-worms.  Felling  timber  about  tbe  middle  of 
Printer,  is  said  to  prevent  the  smaller  kind  from  doing 
injury. 

The  large  boring-worm  takes  its  residence  chiefly  in 
pine  timber.  Scorch  the  trees  in  a  light  flame,  or 
soak  them  in  salt  water. 

Hessian  Fly.  Immerse  the  seed  wheat  10  or  15  sec- 
onds in  boiling-hot  water  ;  cool  it  suddenly;  dry  it,  with 
lime  or  gypsum,  and  sow  it  immediately.  The  nits,  by 
a  good  glass,  can  be  discerned  near  the  sprouts  of  the 
grains. 

Maggots.  Troublesome  to  the  roots  of  cabbages,  tur- 
nips, and  radishes.  Manure  the  ground  with  salt,  or  ap- 
ply weak  brine  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.   (6ee  Radishes.^ 

Turnip  Fly.      (^See  Turnips.,  pcg''^  115.) 

Garden  Flea.  Very  destructive  to  young  cabbages. 
Sow  some  onion  or  tobacco  seeds  with  the  seeds  of  the 
plant,  or  sprinkle  sulphur  or  snuff  on  the  plants.  Soap- 
suds is  good. 

Lice.  These  infest  cabbages,  but  are  destroyed  by 
the  frost.  They  can  be  extirpated  by  the  smoke  of  to- 
bacco. 

Weave!.  A  little  black  bug,  very  destructive  to  wheat 
in  graneries.  On  thrusting  the  hand  into  wheat  irjfested 
with  them,  considerable  warmth  will  be  felt ;  but,  as 
they  are  usually  collected  togetMfer,  every  part  of  the 
heap  or  bin  should  be  examined.  Sulphur  or  snuff,  put 
up  in  little  papers  or  bags,  and  properly  distributed 
among  the  wheat,  will  drive  them  away.  A  bin  made 
of  boards  ofLombardy  poplar  will  never  have  a  weavel 
in  it.  To  keep  them  from  wheat,  before  threshing,  mix 
little  pieces  of  this  wood  every  where  through  the  mow, 
or  sprinkle  salt  among  the  sheaves. 

Grasshoppers.  The  only  known  remedy,  and  it  is 
sometimes  very  inadequate,  is  to  raise  large  flocks  of 
turkies  and  other  poultry,    which  feed  on    them. 

Lice  on  Cattle.,  and  Ticks  on  Sheep.  Where  colts  and 
young  neat  cattle  become  lousy,  by  poor  keeping,  or 
otherwise,  oil  the  creature,  or  wash  it  with  decoction  of 
tobacco  ;  and  they  should  hare  better  keeping,  to  pre- 
vent a  return  of  the  lice.     To  destroy  ticks,  see  sheep. 


BIRDS.  247 

For  Canker-ixorms^  Caterpillars,  and  Curculis,  see  those 
articles. 

See  Peach-tree,  for  the  methods  of  preventing  the  in- 
juries done   by  a  worm  to  that  tree. 

For  destroying  the  Black  Bug,  that  eats  into  the  pea, 
see  this  article. 

BIRDS. 

As  insects  have  increased  greatly  since  the  birds  have 
been  thinned  by  the  increased  number  of  sportsmen,  and 
as  we  know  that  insects  are  the  favorite  food  of  most  Itinds 
of  birds,  particularly  of  the  smaller  kind:  it  would  be 
advantageous,  therefore,  to  encourage  the  increase  of 
the  feathered  tribe,  by  all  the  means  in  our  power. 

What  immense  numbers  of  these,  our  benefactors, 
are  a'lauall}'^  destroyed  through  mere  wantonness  and 
cruelty,  while  we  are  constantly  hearing  of  the  ravages 
of  worms  and  bugs,  in  the  various  departments  of  vege- 
tation. It  is  from  small  birds  we  are  to  look  for  assist- 
ance ;  their  habits,  wants  and  capacity  quahfy  them  to 
check  and  restrain  the  multiplication  of  insects.  The 
parents  of  one  nest  of  young  birds  have  been  calculated 
by  some  ingenious  observer  to  destroy  many  thousands 
of  insects  in  one  day,  and  thus  at  the  commencement  of 
the  warm  season,  one  day's  havoc  prevents  the  exist- 
ence of  many  millions. 

The  destruction  of  vast  fields  of  grain,  by  flies,  in  some 
parts  of  our  country,  has  been  reasonably  attributed  to 
the  extermination  of  the  birds.  It  has  indeed  been  found 
necessary  to  protect  several  species  by  law,  but  policy 
and  humanity  require,  that  the  protection  should  be 
much  farther  extended.  Some  birds  are  pursued  with 
unsparing  hostility,  from  erroneous  notions  of  their  per- 
nicious habits.  The  woodpecker  is  of  this  class  ;  yet  he 
deserves  the  gratitude,  instead  of  the  ill  will  of  man. — 
He  bores  no  trees,  but  those  which  are  unsound,  from 
which  he  extracts  the  insects  which  are  slowly  effecting 
their  destruction.  Linnoius  relates  an  occurrence  in 
Sweden,  which  is  pretty  much  to  the  point.  Among  the 
birds  of  that  country  was  a  particular  species,  which  the 
country  people  apprehended  were  somewhat  destructive 
to    their   crops.      They    accordingly  made    war  upon 


248  BEES. 

them,  and  by  yearly  repeated  attacks  exterminated  them. 
In  consequence  the  insects  which  were  the  principal 
food  of  these  birds  increased  so  as  to  do  an  hundred  fold 
more  damage  to  their  crops  of  grain  and  grass,  than  the 
birds  had  done  ;  they  then  strove  to  reinstate  that  spe- 
cies, and  encourage  their  spreading  in  the  country. 

It  would  be  very  wrong  to  destroy  almost  any  species 
of  this  interesting  part  of  animated  nature.  Who  would 
grudge  them  a  little  grain  in  compensation  for  their 
cheering  songs,  even  if  they  were  of  no  other  service  to 
us?  But  when  v/e  take  into  consideration  the  vast  num- 
ber of  insects  they  destroy  which  would  prove  injurious 
to  our  crops,  they  ought  to  rank  as  auxiliaries  to  husband- 
ry. Providence  seems  to  have  intended  them  for  impor- 
tant purposes  to  us  ;  and  the  person  who  sportively,  or 
through  mistaken  apprehensions,  should  lay  them  low, 
would  discover  a  disposition,  little  short  of  savage. 

BEES. 

Rural  economy  is  incomplete,  where  bees  are  wanting. 
The  cost  of  keeping  them  is  nothing,  and  the  care  that 
is  required  about  tbem  is  but  trifling. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  bees  in  a  hive.  1.  The 
queen  bee,  which  is  larger,  and  of  a  brighter  red  than 
the  rest.  Her  business  is  to  conduct  the  new  swarms 
j»nd  lay  eggs  in  the  cells  for  a  new  brood.  2.  The 
drones,  which  have  no  stings,  are  of  a  darker  color  than 
the  rest,  and  are  supposed  to  be  the  males.  3.  The 
honey  bees,  or  working  bees,  which  are  by  far  more 
numerous  than  the  other  two  kinds. 

A  bee-house  should  be  at  a  suitable  distance  from  any 
place  where  cattle  are  kept,  or  where  horses  are  tied  ; 
from  hog-sties,  and  every  other  place  where  filth  is  col- 
lected. It  is  well  to  place  it  in  a  remote  part  of  the  gar- 
den, and  let  some  shrubbery  (currant  or  gooseberry 
bushes)  grow  round  it  for  the  bees  to  light  on,  if  they 
are  so  disposed,  when  they  swarm.  No  trees  should  be 
near  it;  but  in  very  hot  weather,  it  may  be  occasionally 
shaded  with  boughs  of  trees.  Let  it  stand  leaning  for- 
ward a  little,  facing  the  south-east,  with  the  front  part  of 
the  roof  projecting  over  considerably,  to  prevent  rains 
from  wetUnj  the  hives.     These  should  be  kept  clean. 


BEES.  24d 

dry,  and  sufficiently  warm  in  winter ;  but  not  so  warm 
as  lo  leinpt  t!ie  bees  abroad  in  warm  winter  days.  All 
seams  should  be  stopped  which  would  admit  insects  ;  and 
the  board  on  which  the  hive  stands,  should  be  carefully 
secured  against  warping".  In  very  cold  situations,  the 
house  should  be  tilled  with  straw,  watching  against  mice, 
and  removing  the  straw  in  the  spring. 

Stocks  should  be  removed  either  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, or  in  the  evening,  well  tied  up  in  a  cloth,  and  sus- 
pended on  a  long  pole  carried  on  men's  shoulders. 

It  is  advisable,  says  Mr.  Kicholson^  to  have  large 
swarms  ;  and  for  this  purpose  two  or  more  small  ones 
should  be  put  together.  The  swarm  should  w§igh  from 
4  to  6  pounds.  This  can  be  easily  ascertained  by  know- 
ing the  weight  of  the  empty  hive,  which  should  be  mark- 
ed thereon,     (5000  bees  generally  weigh  a  pound.) 

For  joining  two  or  more  swarms,  take  a  full  hive,  set 
it  on  a  cloth,  5?nd  then  give  it  a  smart  stroke,  which  will 
cause  all  the  bees  to  fall :  search  for  the  queen  and  de- 
stroy her;  have  another  full  hive  ready,  and  put  it  over 
the  bees,  and  they  will  soon  crawl  up  into  it,  and  be- 
come incorporated  with  those  of  that  hive.  This  may 
be  repeated  for  the  purpose  of  adding  a  third  swarm. 

The  following  signs,  according  to  Mr.  Huish,  generally 
precede  the  swarming  of  bees.  1st.  An  extraordinary 
number  hang  in  clusters  about  the  hives.  2d.  An  appa- 
rent idleness  among  the  bees.  3d.  A  particular  noise 
of  ckip^  chip^  made  by  the  young  queen,  two  or  three 
nights  before  taey  swarm.  4th.  An  unusual  bustle 
amongst  the  drones.  5th.  A  sudden  silence  succeeding 
a  violent  uproar.  6th.  The  continual  motipn  of  the 
wings  of  the  bees  which  stand  at  the  entrance.  7th, 
Violent  commotions  at  the  entrance  of  the  hives,  and  the 
bees  crowding  out  in  great  numbers. 

In  hiving,  &c-  approach  them  with  the  smoke,  that 
arises  from  burning  leather.  This  will  make  them  re- 
treat into  their  hive  at  any  time,  or  leave  the  branch  or 
trunk  ot  a  tree  when  hiving  them,  should  they  attempt 
to  regain  the  place  they  at  first  occupied.  Besides,  this 
act  of  fumigation  will  disarm  them  of  all  resentment,  and 
render  them  harmless.  If,  in  swarming,  they  light  on  a 
bx'anch  of  a  tree  or  shrub,  after  they  have  settled,  the 
12* 


BEES, 

branch  may  be  gently  cut  off  and  laid  on  the  ground  ; 
and  then  the  hive,  supported  on  two  sticks,  is  to  be  set 
over  them,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a  sheet,  when 
they  will  soon  ascend  into  the  hive  and  commence  work- 
ing". In  the  evening,  when  all  is  still  within,  the  hive  i* 
to  be  placed  in  the  bee-house. 

In  dealing  with  bees,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
breathe  on  them,  as  nothing  is  more  irritating  to  them. 
When  they  are  to  be  scraped  together,  make  use  of  a 
■wing  for  the  purpose.  It  is  advisable  to  fit  your  dress 
to  them,  by  putting  on  clothes  through  which  they  can- 
not sting;  and  to  protect  the  face,  and  particularly  the 
eyes,  by  a  pair  of  goggles.  But  at  the  time  of  swarm- 
ing they  are  less  inclined  to  sting  than  usual.  If  two 
clusters  form  in  swarming,  and  remaitr separate,  a  queen 
will  be  found  in  each  ;  and  as  no  swarm  that  leaves  a 
hive  is  ever  too  large,  one  of  the  queens  must  be  de- 
stroyed, and  then  they  will  unite. 

The  hive  should  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the 
swarm ;  one,  therefore,  weighing  from  4  to  6  pounds, 
should  have  a  hive  that  will  contain  about  2  or  3  pecks. 
The  hive  is  to  have  a  hole  in  the  top,  say  two  inches 
square,  which  is  to  be  covered  with  a  sliding  shutter  ; 
and  is  to  be  kept  closed  until  the  hive  is  filled.  When 
this  is  the  case,  which  is  to  be  known  by  the  bees  lying 
inactive  about  its  mouth,  open  the  hole  above,  by  draw- 
ing the  shutter  back,  and  set  a  small  hive  on  the  top, 
into  which  they  will  ascend,  and  fill  it  with  the  purest 
honey,  without  any  mixture  of  bee-bread.  When  the 
tipper  hive  is  full,  take  it  off  in  a  cool  morning,  when 
the  bees  are  inactive,  and  carrj?  it  into  a  room  with  the 
windows  open  to  the  sun,  and  as  this  enlivens  them  they 
will  fly  off  to  the  hive  left  standing,  to  join  their  com- 
panions in  filling  another  small  hive,  which  is  to  be  plac- 
ed on  the  top,  as  before.  When  this  is  full,  take  it  away, 
and  put  another  in  its  place,  which,  in  due  time,  is  also 
to  be  taken  away  ;  closing  the  shutter,  and  leaving  thq 
lower  hive  for  the  winter  food  of  the  swarm.  The  up- 
per hives  should  be  sufficiently  lar'^-e  to  contain  about  17 
pounds  of  honey,  which  the  bees,  if  the  swarm  is  as 
large  as  it  should  be,  will  usually  till  about  3  times  in 
the  season.     In  taking  out  the  honey  from    these  small 


BEES.  251 

iiives,  which  should  be  done  speedily,  let  those  bees 
which  are  found  unable  to  fly  be  thrown  into  a  vessel 
of  cold  water,  so  contrived  that  they  can  crawl  out 
again,  and  they  will  soon  recover  their  activity.  In  this 
method  of  managing,  it  will  be  seen,  that  there  is  no 
necessity  for  the  process  of  fire  and  brimstone  forget- 
ting rid  of  the  bees  ;  a  procedure  equally  cruel  and  de- 
structive of  the  race. 

Another  method  of  taking  the  honey,  without  killing 
the  bees,  is  by  driving  them  out  of  the  full  hive,  at 
night,  into  an  empty  one,  by  placing  the  full  hive  bottom 
upwards,  and  fixing  the  other  upon  it.  There  should  be 
cross-pieces  in  the  empty  one  for  the  bees  to  light  on. 
Strike  gently  on  the  two  sides  of  the  full  hive  to  which 
the  edges  of  the  combs  are  fastened.  This  method  is 
also  used  to  join  two  or  more  swarms  together. 

One  of  the  greatest  errors  in  the  management  of  bees, 
is,  in  giving  the  swarm  old  and  decayed  hives;  these 
hives  are  generally  intested  with  those  insects  which 
are  the  enemies  of  bees  and  ruin  the  swarms. 

Were  we  merely  to  consult  our  own  feelings,  we 
should  advise  to  feed  bees  when  their  stock  is  exhaust- 
ed. If  this  be  near  the  close  of  winter,  interest  alone 
will  dictate  the  measure ;  but,  if  they  are  found  desti- 
tute at  an  earlier  period,  their  destiny  should  be  averted 
from  motives  of  compassion.  Is  the  industrious  insect, 
that  toils  for  us  incessantly  during  summer,  unworthy  of 
pity  in  the  hour  of  distress?  Honey  is  the  most  natu- 
ral food  for  them.  It  is  to  be  conveyed  into  the  hives 
by  little  troughs,  and  the  food  is  to  be  given  daily,  un- 
til they  can  provide  for  themselves.  Let  some  good 
sweet-wort  be  mixed  with  the  honey,  and  it  will  then 
go  much  farther.  Sugar  or  molasses  may  also  be  used 
in  place  of  honey.  Some  prescribe  toasts  of  bread, 
sopped  in  strong  ale,  of  which  they  will  not  leave  one 
crumb  remaining.  The  quantity  of  provisions  they 
have  in  store  is  known  by  the  weight  of  the  hive. — 
The  weight  of  the  swarm,  and  the  hive  containing 
them,  should  always  be  known  and  marked  ;  and  then, 
after  a  reasonable  deduction  for  the  weight  of  the  comb, 
the  remainder  must  be  honey  and  bee-bread. 


252  BEES. 

In  Huish''s  Treatise  on  Bees,  is  a  list  of  trees  and  othej* 
plants  from  whose  flowers,  &c.  tliey  extract  their  honey 
and  wax.  Some  of  them  foliow  :  and  first  stands  the 
Apple^  whose  blossom  is  eagerly  sought  by  the  bees  ;  Jip- 
ricot^  Ash,  Aspin^  Balm^  much  frequented  by  them  ;  Black- 
berry^ valuable  to  bees  in  honey  and  farina  ;  Borage^ 
this  is  an  important  plant  for  the  bees,  producing  many 
flowers,  and  continuing  in  bloom  for  several  months  ; — 
it  should  be  cultivated  ;  Beans.,  Buckwheat^  Burnet.,  Cab- 
bages^ every  species  ;  Cherry.,  Clover.,  white  and  red  ; 
Chesnut.,  and  Horse-Chesnut^  Currant^  valuable,  as  flower- 
ing early  and  turnishing  much  honey  ;  Dandelion^  Elm^ 
Goosberry^  equal,  if  not  superior  to  currant  ;  Golden- 
Rod^  very  valuable,  late  ;  Gourds^  Melons.,  Cucumbers^ 
all  supply  food.  Hawthorn.,  Lucern.,  a  valuable  pasturage 
for  bees  ;  Lavender.,  Lily.,  Mignonette.,  rich  in  honey  ; — 
Melilot.,  Mustard^  Oak.,  Paisley.,  Pear  Tree.,  Parsnip^  Pop- 
py..  Primrose.,  Plum  Trees,  of  every  species  ;  Rosemary, 
Radishes,  Ragweed,  Raspberry,  Strawberry,  Sage,  Savory^ 
Saffron,  Sainfoin,  Suiiflower,  Single  Roses,  Turnips, 
Thyme,  "  the  love  of  bees,"  invaluable.  Willow,  Vetches^ 
Violets,  Viper'' s  Bugloss.  All  resinous  trees.  Add  Milk- 
weed, (Asclepias  Syriaca.) 

Mead  or  Metheglin.  Take  90  or  100  lbs.  of  honey,  and 
enough  clear  water  for  a  barrel,  boil  them  an  hour  ; 
when  cool,  barrel  it ;  adding  some  ginger,  cloves,  and 
mace  ;  though  it  will  answer  without  these.  Some 
yeast  must  be  put  in  the  cask,  to  ferment  it.  Let  it 
have  a  little  vent,  while  fermenting ;  but  close  the  vent 
as  soon  as  most  of  the  fermentation  is  over.  It  improves 
by  age,  and  becomes  as  strong  as  common  wines.  It  i3 
better  for  being  bottled  after  5  or  6  months. 

Simple  Mead  is  made  by  boiling  3  parts  of  water  to 
one  of  honey  ;  the  honey  may  be  increased,  or  dimin- 
ished to  the  taste.  The  process  is  over  a  slow  fire  un- 
til one  third  has  evaporated,  then  skimmed,  and  put  into 
a  cask,  until  the  cask  is  full  ;  alter  3  or  4  days  it  will 
be  fit  for  use.  The  cloths  which  have  been  used  in 
filtrating  the  honey  from  the  combs,  may  now  be  used 
'and  cleared  from  their  honey  in  the  boiling  mead. 


WOODLAND.  200 

WOODLAND. 

Of  all  the  errors  in  our  rural  economy,  none  is  per- 
haps so  much  to  be  regretted,  because  none  is  so  difli- 
cult  to  be  repaired,  as  the  injudicious  and  excessive  de- 
struction of  timber  and  firewood.  It  seems  never  to 
have  occurred  that  the  fund  was  not  inexhaustible,  and 
that  a  crop  of  trees  could  not  be  raised  as  quickly  as  one 
of  wheat  or  corn.  Abundant  as  is  the  timber  and  wood- 
land in  many  parts  of  New-England,  the  period  is  not  re- 
mote, when  a  scarcity  and  exorbitancy  of  price  will  be 
severely  felt,  accompanied  with  deep  r  grets  for  past 
neglect.  No  provident  farmers  should  delay  silting  a- 
part  for  future  necessity  a  wood  lot,  duly  protected,  and 
to  guard  the  second  growth  of  timber  against  the  rav- 
ages of  cattle. 

The  quantity  of  ground  to  be  kept  in  wood,  must  de- 
pend on  the  size  of  the  farm  ;  the  soil,  the  climate,  and, 
frequently,  on  the  market  for  wood  ;  for,  in  some  cases, 
it  is  more  profitable  to  keep  tolerably  good  land  in  wood, 
than  in  any  other  cultivation.  Of  the  natural  growth  of 
wood,  it  will  require  between  20  and  30  acres,  to  keep 
two  fires,  according  to  the  common  method  of  usin^* 
wood  for  fuel.  If  woods  are  old  and  decaying,  the  bet- 
ter way  is  to  cut  all  off,  as  you  want  to  use  the  wood, 
and  let  an  entire  new  growth  start  up,  which  will  grow 
more  rapidly.  It  is  considered  best  to  cut  all  off  in  this 
way  every  40  or  50  years. 

To  thicken  a  forest,  or  to  prevent  its  becoming  too 
thin,  cattle  should  be  kept  out  at  all  seasons.  The 
seeds,  or  cuttings  of  trees,  of  rapid  growth,  should  also 
be  set,  or  planted,  in  every  part  that  becomes  destitute 
of  growing  wood  :  For  if  Ihe  sun  can  get  in  and  cause 
the  ground  to  be  covered  with  grass,  the  further  growth 
of  young  timber  will  be  prevented.  But  grass  will  not 
check  the  growth  of  locust.  Perhaps  the  farmer  will 
jBnd  this  the  best  tree  to  plant  ibr  fuel. 

The  easiest  method  of  raising  the  locust  is  as 
follows:  Plant,  15  or  20  trees  on  an  acre;  when 
12  or  15  feet  high,  run  straggling  furrows  through  the 
ground,  and  wherever  the  roots  are  cut  with  the  plough, 
new  trees  will  start  up,  and  soon  stock  the  whole  ground 
with  a  plentiful  growth. 


234  TIMBER    AND    MAPLE   TREES. 

Much  poor  exhausted  lands  in  this  country  should  be 
planted  with  forests,  to  supply  the  waste  of  wood  that 
is  constantly  increasing. 

TIMBER. 

The  winter  has  generally  been  considered  the  right 
time  for  felling  trees  for  timber;  but  it  is  observed,  by 
Mr.  Kenrick^  in  the  New-England  Farmer,  that  Mr. 
Pickering  appears  to  have  established  the  important 
fact,  that  white  oak,  felled  or  stripped,  in  barking  time, 
will  be  stronger,  more  com[)act,  and  nearly  twice  as  du- 
rable as  timber  felled  in  the  winter  season.  Can  there 
be  a  doubt  but  the  same  means  which  produced  this  ex- 
traordina'-y  strength,  &,c.  in  oak,  would  be  productive  of 
similar  effects  in  pine,  and  every  other  sort  of  timber  ? 
We  can  hardly  imagine  a  discovery  of  more  importance 
to  every  section  of  our  country,  than  the  certainty,  that 
by  merely  felling  their  timber  at  a  particular  season  of 
the  year,  their  bridges,  fences,  and  buildings  of  every 
kind,  would  last  nearly  double  the  usual  time. 

Soaking  timber  in  salt-water  is  very  good  to  increase 
its  strength  and  durability. 

In  order  to  preserve  timber  from  cracking,  while  sea- 
soning, let  it  be  blocked  out  (from  timber  felled  in  the 
spring)  for  ^he  purposes  wanted,  and  laid  in  a  hay-mow 
where  the  hay  is  carted  in.  When  the  hay  is  dealt  out 
in  the  winter,  the  pieces  may  be  taken  out  well  season- 
ed, and  free  from  cracks. 

The  right  time  for  cutting  down  trees  for  timber  is, 
xvhen  they  are  in  their  prime,  as  the  wood  will  then 
have  arrived  to  its  greatest  perfection,  for  hardness  and 
durability. 

Timber  used  for  posts,  will  last  considerably  longer, 
by  setting  the  end  in  the  ground  which  was  uppermost 
as  it  grew. 

Painting  wood  before  the  sap  is  dry  hastens  its  decay. 

MAPLE    TREES. 

There  are  many  sorts  of  maples  enumerated  by  bota- 
nists ;  the  most  valuable  of  which  is  the  rock,  or  sugar- 
maple,  (^Acer  Saccharinnm.)  This  tree  seems  to  be 
equally   well  adapted  for  ornament  and  for  profit.     Its 


MAPLE    TREES.  255 

shade  is  but  litte  injurious  to  the  growths  of  grain  and 
still  les?  to  those  of  grass.  For  fuel  it  is  perhaps  infe- 
rior to  no  wood  whatever.  In  clearing  land,  it  is  better 
to  leave  small  maples,  or  to  protect  and  rear  a  second 
growth,  than  to  undertake  to  preserve  the  large  trees, 
because  these  when  left  alone,  are  apt  to  be  blown  down 
by  strong  winds.  Trees  which  have  ever  been  accus- 
tomed to  free  currents  of  air  will  put  forth  roots  adapted 
to  their  exposure. 

They  can  be  raised  from  cuttings  and  the  seed ;  and 
will  begin  to  yield  sugar  when  15  or  20  years  old.  If 
tapped  in  a  proper  manner  they  would  probably  afford 
yearly  supplies  oisap  for  more  than  a  century.  An  av- 
erage quantity  of  sugar  from  full  grown  trees  may  be 
estimated  at  4  pounds. 

The  rapidity  of  their  growth,  depends  essentially  on 
the  manner  of  transplanting  them.  Let  the  holes  for 
the  trees  be  dug,  say,  a  foot  in  depth,  and  5  in  di  imeter, 
and  then  spade  or  loosen  the  ground  at  the  bottoms  to 
the  depth  of  8  or  10  inches  before  the  trees  are  set  in. 
20  or  30  trees  to  an  acre  of  pasture  will  do  but  Utile  in- 
jury to  the  grass,  will  afford  a  good  shade  ibr  cattle,  and 
6  or  8  acres  thus  stocked,  will  aiford  a  valuable  sugar 
orchard.  ^ 

As  good  white  sugar  can  be  made  of  maple  as  of  cane 
sugar.  What  a  value  would  not  be  added  to  it,  by  the 
reflection  upon  the  different  manner  in  which  these  kinds 
of  sugar  are  produced?  the  cane  sugar  is  the  result  of 
the  forced  labor  of  the  most  wretched  slaves,  toiling  un- 
der the  ardent  rays  of  a  burning  sun,  and  too  often  un- 
der the  cruel  lash  of  a  cutting  whip.  While  the  maple 
sugar  is  made  by  those  who  are  happy  and  free. 

Maple  Sugar.  Where  the  farmer  wishes  to  save  his 
sugar-maple  trees,  he  ought  not  to  tap  them  in  the  com- 
mon way;  but  instead  of  this,  bore  a  hole  2  or  3  inches 
into  the  tree,  cut  of  which  the  sap  can  be  drawn  ;  and 
let  it  be  plugged  up  after  the  sap  has  done  running.  Old 
troughs,  which  have  lain  for  years  ex|)Ofied  to  the 
weather,  are  not  very  proper  receptacles  for  the  sap,  if 
regard  be  had  to  the  cleanliness  and  value  of  the  sugar. 
The  following  method  of  making  the  sugar,  we  extract 
from  the  JV.  E.  Farmer  :     bcald  the  vessels  for  catching 


f56  BUSHES. 

(he  sap.  Keep  the  sap  clean  from  dirt  while  boiling ; 
and  avoid  leaving  it  long  in  an  iron  kettle.  When  nearly 
boiled  down  to  syrup  (or  thin  molasses)  a  little  lime 
thrown  into  the  kettle  will  be  of  use.  At  this  stage  of 
boiling,  as  well  as  in  sugaring  off,  avoid  heating  the  top 
of  the  kettle  too  hot,  or  burning  the  sugar  in  any  other 
way.  When  the  syrup  is  well  boiled  down,  turn  it  while 
hot,  into  a  clean  wooden  vessel,  let  it  stand  2  or  3  days 
and  settle  ;  then  turn  it  carefully  from  the  dirt  at  the 
bottom  and  strain  it.  Hang  it  over  a  gentle  fire,  and 
when  it  is  warm,  stir  in  one  pint  of  milk  to  4  or  5  gallons 
of  syrup,  which  will  rise  as  it  begins  to  boil,  and  must  be 
taken  otf.  If  you  wish  to  make  your  sugar  very  nice, 
cool  it  until  one  half  or  two  thirds  will  grain,  turn  it  hot 
into  a  tight  cask ;  let  it  stand  undisturbed  in  a  cellar, 
until  it  is  grained  at  the  bottom.  Turn  off  the  molasses 
and  turn  the  cask  bottom  upwards  over  some  vessel  to 
catch  what  will  drain  out :  let  it  stand  as  long  as  any 
will  drop,  then  set  your  cask  upright,  and  the  moisture 
will  settle  to  the  bottom.  If  you  wish  to  make  dry  su- 
gar without  draining,  to  ascertain  when  it  is  boiled 
enough,  drop  some  on  snow  and  let  it  cool ;  if  brittle  as 
rosin,  it  is  sufficiently  boiled. 

BUSHES. 

Tn  many  parts  of  our  country,  the  pasture  grounds  are 
infested,  and  often  overrun  with  noxious  shrubs;  this  is 
the  most  slovenly  part  of  our  husbandry,  and  ought  to 
be  cured. 

Eradicating  them,  says  Mr.  Deane^  requires  so  much 
labor,  that  farme»s  are  most  commonly  content  with  cut- 
ting them  orce  in  a  iew  years.  But  the  more  cuttings 
they  survive,  the  longer  lived  they  are  apt  to  be  ;  and 
the  harder  to  kill,  as  the  roots  continually  gain  strength. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  cutting  bushes  in  the  sum- 
mer will  .lo  more  towards  destroying  them,  than  doing  it 
in  any  other  season,  particularly  in  August.  Other  cir- 
cumstances being  equal,  the  wettest  weather  is  best  for 
destroying  shrubs  by  cutting.  Spreading  plaster  on 
ground  where  bushes  have  been  cut,  may  tend  lo  check 
their  re-sprouting,  by  encoura§^ing  the  growth  of  grass. 


SALTfNe    OF  MEAT,    iiC.  257 

It  is  said  to  be  a  good  method  of  destroying"  bushe?,  to 
cut  them  with  hoes  close  to  the  surface,  when  the 
ground  is  frozen  hard  ;  and  that  more  may  be  destroyed 
in  a  day,  in  this  way,  than  in  the  usual  method  of  cutting 
with  a  bush  scythe. 

Bushes  which  grow  in  clusters,  as  alder,  &c.  may  be 
expeditiously  pulled  up  by  oxen  ;  and  this  is  an  effect- 
ual way  to  subdue  them. 

Elder  is  considered  harder  to  subdue  than  almost  any 
other  kind  of  bush  ;  mowing  them  5  limes  in  a  season, 
it  is  sai  1,  will  not  kill  them.  The  roots  of  the  shrub 
oak  will  not  be  killed,  but  by  digging  them  out. 

To  destroy  bushes  *'  --amps  ;  flooding  2  or  3  sum- 
mers is  the  most  appri.-  J  method.  But  if  this  is  not 
convenient,  draining  wih  so  alter  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
that  the  shrubs,  which  it  naturally  produced  before, 
will  not  be  any  longer  nourished  by  it;  and  one  cutting 
may  be  sufficient. 

After  ail,  extirpation,  by  digging  them  out,  and  by  lire, 
is  cheapest  and  most  effectual. 

SALTING    OF    MEAT,  &C. 

In  packing  down  pork,  apply  a  large  quantity  of  salt; 
then  make  :i  pickie,  sufficient  to  cover  all  the  meat,  as 
strong  a«!  it  can  be  made  with  salt,  and,  when  cold,  pour 
it  on.  When  the  pickle  becomes  considerably  colored 
with  the  blood  of  tl^e  meat,  draw  it  off,  boil  it,  (ake  off 
the  scum  tiil  it  become  c:eiir,  and  apply  it  again.  Re- 
p<^at  this,  if  the  pickle  ai^ain  become  colored  too  much, 
anl  add  more  fresh   brine,  if  necessary. 

For  a  barrel  of  beef,  take  4  quarts  of  rock  salt,  pound- 
ed line  ;  then  8  ounces  of  salt  petre  and  5  pounds  of 
brown  sugar.  Let  the  silt  be  well  rubbed  inlv>  the  pieces, 
as  soon  as  the  meat  is  cold,  p  ick  them  clost',  and  sprin- 
kle the  salt  petre  and  su?ar  over  each  layer.  T'he 
juices  of  the  meat,  if  well  packed,  will  form  a  sufficient 
qu;mtity  of  brine  to  cover  the  whole.  The  next  spring, 
draw  off  the  brine,  clarify  it,  as  before  dirocted,  ad«iing 
a  little  salt  to  it,  and  apply  it  again,  and  the  beef  will 
keep  very  s  ^  ,  aud  line  tasted  during  the  whole  sum- 
mer following. 

23 


258  BEER. 

The  above  is  also  an  excellent  method  for  curing 
pork  and  hams.  When  hams  have  been  sufficiently  cur- 
ed in  this,  or  any  other  way,  they  should  be  smeared 
over  with  molasses  ;  smoaked  sufficiently  and  suddenly  ; 
the  quicker  the  better;  and  let  them  be  vvell  sprinkled 
over  with  slaked  lime,  and  put  away  in  casks,  filled 
with  bran  or  oacs,  to  keep  during  the  summer.  The 
box  or  cask  in  whieii  they  are  put  ought  to  be  perfectly 
tight,  raised  about  6  inches  from  the  ground,  and  the 
bran  or  oats  packed  in  quite  tight. 

By  the  use  of  charcoal^  (which  is  a  very  powerful  an- 
tiseptick,)  it  is  said,  meat  mav^e^  preserved  froia  the  rava- 
ges of  all  small  animals^  andvu%,  and  sound  for  any  length 
of  time.^  and  'hi  any  climate.  Take  a  tierce  or  Ijox,  and 
cover  the  bottom  with  charcoal,  reduced  to  small  pieces, 
but  not  to  dust ;  cover  the  legs  or  pieces  of  meat  with 
stout  brown  paper,  sewed  around  so  as  to  exclude  all 
dust ;  lay  them  down  on  the  coal  in  compact  order,  then 
cover  the  layer  with  coal,  and  so  on  till  the  whole  is 
finished,  and  cover  the  top  with  a  good  thickness  of 
coal. 

The  use  of  charcoal,  properly  prepared  in  boxes,  is 
of  great  benefit  in  preserving  fresh  provisions,  but- 
ter, and  fruits,  in  warm  weather ;  also,  in  recovering 
meats  of  any  kind,  when  partially  damaged,  by  cover- 
ing the  same  a  i'ew  hours  in  the  coal. 

Meat  ought  always  to  be  salted  as  soon  as  it  is  cold. 
Tendency  to  putrefaction  soon  commences  ;  and  long  be- 
fore it  is  discernible.  Salting  should  precede  this  ten- 
dency, and  so  prevent  it ;  for  salt  cannot  so  effectually 
itop  putrefaction,  as  it  Ccunprevent  its  commencement. 

BEER. 

Spruce  Beer.  Boil  some  spruce  boughs  with  some 
wheat  bran  till  the  water  tastes  sufficiently  of  the  spruce  ; 
strain  the  water,  and  stir  in  at  the  rate  of  two  quarts  of 
molasses  to  a  half  barrel ;  work  it  with  the  emptyings  of 
beer,  or  with  yeast.  After  working  sufficiently,  bung 
up  the  cask,  or,  which  is  better,  bottle  its  contents. 

Molasses  Beer.  Take  5  pounds  of'^tilvl'^sses,  half  a 
pint  of  yeast,  and  a  spoonful  of  powdered  giUjger ;  put 
these  into  a  vessel,  and  pour  on  two  gallons  of  scalding 
hot  soft  water;  shake   the  whole  till    a  fermentation  i» 


YINEGAR.  259 

produced  ;  then  add,  of  the  same  kind  of  water,  suffic- 
ient to  fill  up  your  half  barrel,  if  the  cask  be  greater, 
or  smaller  than  this,  the  component  parts  must  be  in 
proportion.  Let  the  liquor  ferment  about  12  hours? 
then  bottle  it,  with  a  raisin  or  two  in  each  bottle. 

If  honey  instead  of  molasses  be  used,  at  the  rate  of 
about  12  pounds  to  the  barrel,  it  will  make  a  very  fine 
beverage,  after  having  been  bottled  a  while. 

To  make  Beer  with  Hops.  Take  5  quarts  of  wheat 
bran,  and  3  ounces  of  hops,  and  boil  them  15  ininutes  in 
15  gallons  of  water  ;  strain  the  liquor;  add  2  quarts  of 
molasses  ;  cool  it  quickly  to  about  the  temperature  of 
new  milk  ;  put  it  into  a  half  barrel,  completely  filling  it. 
Leave  the  bung  out  for  24  hours,  in  order  that  the  3^east 
may  be  worked  off  and  thrown  out ;  and  then  the  beer 
will  be  fit  for  use.  About  the  fifth  day,  bottle  off  what 
remains  in  the  cask,  or  it  will  turn  sour,  if  the  weather 
be  warm.  If  the  cask  be  new,  apply  yeast,  or  beer- 
emptyings,  to  bring  on  the  fermentation  ;  but,  if  it  has 
been  in  this  use  before,  that  will  not  be  necessar}^ — 
Yeast,  particularly  the  whiter  part,  is  much  fitter  to  be 
used  for  fermenting,  than  the  mere  grounds  of  the  beer 
barrel. 

To  recover  a  cask  of  stale  Small  Beer.  Take  some  hops 
and  some  chalk  broken  to  pieces  ;  put  them  in  a  bag, 
and  put  them  in  at  the  bung-hole,  and  then  stop  up  the 
cask  closely.  Let  the  proportion  be  two  ounces  of  hops 
and  a  pound  of  chalk  for  a  half  barrel. 

To  clarify  Beer.  For  a  half  barrel,  take  about  six 
ounces  oichalk,  burn  it,  and  put  it  into  the  cask.  This 
will  disturb  the  liquor  and  fine  it  in  24  hours. 

VINEGAR. 

Cider,  (particularly  such  as  is  of  an  acid  tendency,) 
placed  in  the  sim^  becomes  very  strong  vinegar  in  a  short 
time;  the  bungs  are  left  open  for  the  discharge  by  fer- 
mentation of  the  pomace,  and  for  the  admission  of  air  at 
all  times.  If  new  cider  be  put  on  vinegar,  or  upon  the 
lees  or  mother,  after  racking  off  the  vmegar,  it  will  hast- 
en the  operntion.  By  adding  one  pound  of  honey  to  a 
gallon  of  cider,  it  will  become  such  powerful  vinegar, 
after  standing  some  months,  that  it  must  be  mixed  with 
Tvater  lor  common  use.  • 


MISCELLANEOUS  ARTICLES. 


EARTHEN    WARE. 

Much  of  the  earthen  ware  made  in  this  country  is  glaz- 
ed with  lead:  and  it  is  laid  on  very  savingly,  thin  and 
slight:  <o  that  it  is  not  only  worn  away  by  vegetables, 
and  every  thing  acidulous,  but  is  apt  to  scale  off,  and  be 
swallowed  with  meat,  greens  g.nd  drinks.  It  is  a  pre- 
paration of  lead,  and  consequently  a  strong  poison. — 
Pickles,  preserves,  &c.  should  never  be  kept  in  earthen 
Tessels. 

CELLARS. 

If  you  wish  to  live  out  half  3'onr  days,  be  careful  to 
cleanse  your  cellars,  and  not  to  be  in  the  habit  of  breath- 
ing the  gasses  of  putrelaction,  vegetable  or  animal.  We 
have  every  reason  for  believing  that  bilious  or  typhus 
fevers,  of  a  malignant  and  fatal  kind,  have  originated 
from  the  rotting  of  potatoes,  cabbages,  turnips,  and  eth- 
er vegetables,  in  cellars.  Beef  brine,  or  pork  brine, 
suffered  to  stand  too  long,  become  very  offensive  ;  and 
whatever  offends  the  sense  of  smelling,  is  injurious  to 
the  health.  Dead  rats  or  mice,  in  a  wall  or  ceihng,  are 
detrimental  to  health,  as  well  as  offensive. 

The  following  has  been  recommended  as  an  effectual 
mode  of  freeing  a  room  frem  the  offensive  smell,  occa- 
sioned by  a  dead  rat,  or  other  animal :  Take  a  small 
earthen  vessel,  into  which,  put  a  little  salt  petre,  more  or 
less,  according  to  the  size  of  the  room  ;  pour  upon  this 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  (oil  of  vitriol,) 
so  as  completely  to  saturate  it,  and  shut  the  room  up 
closely  for  an  hour,  in  which  time  it  will  be  found  \o  be 
perfectly  free  from  the  offensive  smell. 


HAND    rLOUGIt    AND    STIMSON'S    FARM.  261 

HAND    PLOUGH. 

A  small  hand  plough  might  be  very  advantageously- 
used  j'or  the  purpose  oi"  eradicating  weeds  among  sever- 
al kinds  ot^  growing  crops  of  roots  :  such  as  onions,  car- 
rots parsnips,  &,c.  It  should  have  two  light  handles, 
leaning  well  backward,  of  the  length  of,  say  four  and  a 
half  feet,'  or  of  such  length  as  will  be  found  most  proper 
for  the  purpose  oi"  pushing  the  plough  forward  by  hand. 
It  saouid  have  a  beam  and  share,  of  such  dimensions, 
that  the  plough  would  cut  a  furrow  off",  say  an  inch  in 
depth,  and  about  four  inches  wide.  The  share  should 
be  shaped  similar  to  that  of  a  large  plough  ;  and  it  should 
be  kept  well  ground,  so  as  to  cut  off  all  the  roots  of 
weeds  which  come  in  its  way.  It  should  be  ran  close  to 
the  rows  of  roots,  turning  the  furrows, from  (hem,  in  tbe 
first  place,  and  then  turning  it  back  to  them  again. 

stimson's  farm. 
{^Froin  the  American  Farmer.^ 

Mr,  St{mso7i''s  farm  in  the  township  of  Galway,  Sara- 
toga county,  New-York,  contains  about  350  acres,  of 
which  he  cultivates,  as  yet,  only  between  80  and  100 
acres,  which  are  laid  off  into  8  acre  lots.  He  has  cer- 
tificates of  premiums  from  the  Agricultural  Society  of 
that  county  :  For  having  the  best  managed  farm  in  the 
county.  For  having  raised  62  bushels  of  barley  from 
one  acre.  For  having  raised  4  1-2  tons  timothy  hay 
per  acre,  from  a  lot  oi  8  acres,  and  he  took  the  pnins 
to  weigh  the  hay  from  one  of  those  acres  4  days  after 
it  was  cut,  and  found  it  to  weigh  5  tons  and  324  lbs. — 
For  having  raised  104  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre.  For 
having  raised  357  1-2  bushels  potatoes  from  half  an 
acre. 

His  method  for  raising  potatoes  is,  he  opens  the  fur- 
rows 33  inches  apart,  plants  10  inches  apart;. hoes  or 
hills  them  one  way  only;  plants  them  shallow,  viz: 
about  2  inches,  as  soon  as  they  show  themselves  about 
3  inches  above  the  ground,  he  covers  about  2  inches  of 
them;  in  8  or  10  days,  or  where  the  tojjs  are  about  6 
inches  high,  he  spreads  the  tops  open,  and  hoes  and 
covers  them  again  to  about  2  inches  ;  and  when  grown 
up  again  to  about  6  inches,  he  hoe§  and  covers  them  ai 
23* 


262  SALEM    ALMS-HOUSE    FARM. 

before.  By  this  process  he  thinks  it  possible  that  100(J 
bushels  may  be  raised  from  an  acre. 

His  method  for  raising  corn,  is,  he  has  a  machine  that 
crosses  the  ridges,  he  plants  3  to  a  hill ;  the  ridges  or 
hills  are  about  30  inches  apart.  He  suckers  after  the 
second  ploughing — he  cuts  the  stalk  and  blades  to- 
gether close  to    the  ground.     The    average  product    is 

4  1-2  ears  to  a  hill,  the  corn  weighs  60  to  62  lbs.  to 
the  bushel. 

His  general  method  of  farming  is  to  lay  off  his  land  in- 
to lots  of  6  to  10  acres,  each  lot  is  manured  once  in  4  or 

5  years ;  his  usual  quantity  is  8  waggon  loads,  with  4 
horses,  to  each  acre — first  year  is  in  grass — second  in 
corn — third  in  barley — fourth  in  wheat,  spring  or  win- 
ter wheat,  with  clover  and  timothy ;  5  lbs.  clover  and  2 
quarts  timothy  per  acre,  the  northern  or  late  clover  he 
prefers — he  mows  his  timothy  for  2  years,  pastures  it 
one  year ;  in  the  4th  year  he  turns  down  the  sod,  puts 
in  wheat  on  the  sod — 1st  and  2d  corn — 3d  barley,  or 
spring  or  winter  wheat,  and  stocks  it  down  as  before. 

Mr.  Stimson  has  a  field  u&ed  as  pasture,  which  he  in- 
tends to  plough,  roll  it  well,  give  it  a  top  dressing  of 
manure,  plough  it  the  second  time,  manure  it  again,  put 
it  into  wheat,  harrow  it  in,  and  expects  to  make  35  to 
40  bushels  per  acre. 

The  following  is  his  product  from  100  acres,  as  re- 
ported from  actual  survey  and  examination  :  10  acres, 
havinor  400  apple  trees  on  them,  produced  25  tons  hay  ; 
8  acres  corn,  550  bushels;  8  acres  do.  720;  10  do.  do. 
SOO,  and  16  tons  of  hay  :  4  do.  wheat,  140  bushels;  1 
do.  flax,  600  lbs. ;  8  do.  oats,  560  bushels;  8  do.  hay,  32 
tons  ;  8  do.  do.  36  do. ;  I  do.  barley,  GO  bushels  ;  3  do.  hay, 
10  1-2  tons;  4  do.  do.  12  do.  ;  8  do.  do.  24  do.;  2  acres 
1000  bushels  potatoes ;  2  acres  in  vegetables,  which  also 
raised  400  chickens. 

0:^/"  His  wheat  cost  him  30  cents  per  bushel — corn  l5 
do.  do. 

SALEM    ALMS-HOUSE    FARM. 

(From  the  Mass.  Agricvlinral  Repository  and  Journal.') 
One  of  the  r.u.st  successful  experiments  in  agriculture 
that  we  have  ever  known,  is  that  of  the  alms-house  farm, 
in  Salem,  which  is  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Paul  Upton. 


BRITISH   AND   AMERICAff   AGRICULTURBi  263 

This  farm  con-ists  of  about  35  acres,  (as  we  are  in- 
formed,) and  was,  two  years  since,  in  a  state  of  nature, 
and  very  rough  land.  It  has  been  brought  to,  and  the 
produce  during  the  year  1818,  was  as  follows,  viz.: — 
Pork  killed,  weighed  7960  lbs.  12  live  pigs,  sold  for 
§42.  On  hand,  57  pigs.  Corn,  400  bushels.  Pota- 
toes, 2250  bushels.  Turnips,  900  bushels.  3  tons  of 
squashes.  50  tons  of  pumpkins,  together  with  all  the 
common  summer  vegetables  for  the  alms-house. 

We  doubt  whether  any  farm  in  the  United  States,  hai 
produced  more,  in  proportion  to  its  size  ;  and  it  is  a  proof 
what  well  directed  industry  can  effect. 

A  brief  comparison  between  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  agriculture  in  Britain  and  in  America.  Se- 
lected   principally  from  the  writings  of  Mr.  Livingston. 

The  first  advantage  England  possesses,  consists  in  her 
early  spring;  this  enables  the  farmer  to  commence  his 
work  sooner  than  he  can  in  this  country  :  to  this  cause  it 
is  owing,  that  such  crops  as  require  early  sowing  on  a 
well  prepared  fallow,  succeed  better  in  Britain  than 
here.  Barley,  for  instance,  requires  four  good  spring 
ploughings,  and  yet  should  be  put  in  by  the  first  of  May  ; 
this  cannot  be  done  here,  except  upon  very  light  lauds, 
our  clays  being  hardly  fit  to  plough  before  May  ;  but 
light  land  will  not  produce  good  barley  without  manure. 

In  England  it  may  be  raised  to  advantage  on  strong 
loams,  and  even  on  clay.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  bar- 
ly  is  nearly  as  cheap  in  England  as  here,  though  every 
other  grain  is  generally  much  dearer.  The  same  rea- 
soning applies  to  beans,  (horse  beans,)  which  are  unpro- 
ductive in  England,  unless  sown  in  February  and  March, 
which  is  hardly  possible  here  on  strong  clays,  the  soil 
these  require.  Turnips  cannot  be  raised  in  our  climate 
to  so  much  advantage,  as  a  food  for  cattle  ;  the  season 
in  which  they  are  sown  being  usually  very  dry,  and  the 
plants  Uable  to  be  destroyed  by  the  fly. 

Great  Britain  has  also  some  advantage  over  us  in  the 
shortness  of  the  winter,  but  much  less  than  is  generally 
imagined.  Their  autumn  is  cold  and  wet;  and  though 
there  is  some  apparent  verdure,  yet  the  vegetption  is  so 
slovf,  as  to  render  it  usual  for  good  farmers  to  house 


264  BRITISH    AND    AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE-. 

their  cattle  by  the  first  of  Norember,  rather  than  suffer 
them  to  poach  their  fields,  in  gleaning  a  scanty  subsist- 
ence from  them  ;  nor  do  they  turn  tiiem  to  pasture  till 
late  in  April. 

These  are  the  principal  advantages  that  the  British 
farmers  claim  over  us.  Let  us  now  examine  those  we 
exclusively  possess.  The  noblest  of  these  is  Indian  corn, 
[which  does  not  grow  in  England.]  Neither  the  beans 
or  turnips  of  Britain  can  be  compared  with  this  plant. — 
Carrots  may  be  raised  at  less  expense  here  than  in 
Britain,  because  we  have  much  fewer  weeds,  which  are 
the  greatest  enemy  to  that  root.  Cabbages,  potatoes, 
and  pumpkins,  would  not  be  so  much  neglected  here  as 
they  generally  are,  were  it  not  that  hay  is  made  in  this 
country  at  half  the  expense  that  it  requires  in  the  moist 
climates  of  Britain.  Vegetation  there  is  extremely  slow; 
their  spring  is  nearly  one  month  earlier  than  ours;  yet, 
though  their  wheat  begins  to  grow  in  March,  it  is  not 
reaped  till  late  in  August ;  ours  is  cut  6  weeks  earlier, 
though  it  does  not  begen  to  vegetate  till  late  in  April;  so 
that  it  takes  five  and  a  half  months  in  Britain  to  perfect  a 
crop  which  is  performed  here  in  little  better  than  three. 
The  same  causes  intiuence  the  growth  of  grass.  In 
soils,  therefore,  of  equal  quality,  much  less  will  grow  in 
a  given  time  in  Britain  than  in  America,  as  far  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  general  average  of  their  clover  and 
natural  grass  in  not  exceeding  ours,  though  they  are 
longer  in  a  growing  state.  It  is  true,  that  the  moisture 
of  the  climate,  and  mild  winters,  give  a  great  verdure  to 
their  fields  at  some  seasons  ;  but  this  only  nn  apparent 
advantage,  which  deceives  superficial  observers,  while  it 
is  attended  with  real  inconveniencies ;  first,  the  grass  it- 
self is  b}^  that  circumstance  rendered  less  nutritious,  as 
is  well  known  by  every  farmer;  secondly,  while  the 
hay  is  lighter,  it  is  got  in  at  more  expense  than  ours, 
which  is  made  at  the  driest  season  of  the  year.  In  our 
crops  1  f  grain  we  enjoy  similar  advantages;  their  har- 
vests are  frequently  wet,  while  nine  years  in  ten  ours  is 
got  in  without  the  least  obstruction  from  rain.  The 
produce  would  also,  I  am  well  satisfied,  be  greater  here 
than  in  England,  on  highly  cultivated  soils,  since  it  is 
'tvell  known  that  the  strength  of  the  straw  depends  upon 


BRITISH   AND    AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE.  265 

Hie  dryness  of  the  season.  In  a  moist  climate,  therefore, 
without  sun  to  harden  the  straw,  heavy  crops  must  be 
very  often  injured  by  lodging,  especially  if  we  take  into 
consideration,  that  high  winds  are  much  more  usual  in 
Great  Britain  than  here.  Blight  and  mi'dew  are  effects 
of  a  moist  climate.  These  are  seldom  and  partially 
known  in  this  country,  prevailing  only  in  particular  dis- 
tricts, in  extraordinary  seasons.  In  Britain  it  often  hap- 
pens, that  wet  weather,  when  the  wheat  is  in  blossom, 
affects  all  the  wheat  in  the  kingdom,  many  parts  of  which, 
on  this  account,  do  not  pretend  to  raise  it. 

If  vegetation  is  slower  in  Britain  than  here,  and  if  the 
grass  is  also  less  nutritious,  it  must  follow,  that  with  the 
same  attention  to  stock  our  pastures  with  the  best  grass, 
and  to  keep  the  cattle  out  of  them  at  improper  seasons,  a 
larger  stock  may  be  maintained  on  the  same  quantity  of 
ground  in  this  country  than  in  England  ;  and  thus  the 
difference  in  the  length  of  our  winter  be  am;)ly  compen- 
sated. This  observation  leads  me  to  a  circumstance  in 
British  husbandry,  v/hich  might  be  advantageously  prac- 
tised by  us.  Many  of  their  farmers  sow  rye,  for  the  use 
of  their  sheep  and  iambs,  in  the  spring.  In  order  to  do 
this  they  must  be  at  the  expense  of  a  fallow  ;  and  as 
their  rye  grows  two-fifths  slower  than  ours,  it  must  fol- 
low, that  they  can  only  keep  three  sheep  where  we 
may  have  five.  If,  therefore,  this  practice  is  advantage- 
ous in  England,  it  would  be  much  more  so  in  America, 
to  sow  our  corn  fields  with  rye,  to  feed  off  with  sheep 
in  the  spring,  not  only  because  of  the  additional  numbers 
we  can  keep,  but  because  we  are  more  pinched  lor 
sheep-food  in  the  spring;  besides  that,  the  rye  that  costs 
the  British  farmer  a  complete  fallow,  costs  us  nothing" 
but  the  seed. 

In  the  healthfulness  of  our  stock,  we  have  great  ad- 
vantages over  Britain.  Although  some  disorders  pre- 
vail among  neat  cattle,  Mr.  Livingston  observes,  that 
during  20  years  he  only  lost  one  creature,  unless  it  was 
by  some  accidental  hurt  ;  or  by  bad  keeping  in  the 
spring  ;  and  while  the  rot  svvepps  aw  ly  whole  lloc'cs  of 
sheep  in  Britain,  it  is  a  disorder  entirely  unknown  in  this 
eountry. 


266  UTILITY    OP    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES. 

All  these  natural  advantages  being  ia  favour  of  the 
American  fanner,  we  shall  be  asked  how  it  happens 
that  the  lands  in  Britain  are  more  productive  ?  The  an- 
swer is  :  More  labour  is  expended  upon  less  land  there  ; 
and  the  product  is  always  in  proportion  to  the  labor,  the 
soil,  and  the  climate. 

The  difference  between  the  two  countries  in  the  price 
of  labour,  and  of  cattle,  was  formerly  much  greater  than 
at  present.  The  average  price  of  labour  in  Britain  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Lo-well^  is  about  67  cents  per  day,  and 
ours  does  not  exceed,  probabl}^,  75  cents.  To  balance 
this,  may  be  placed  the  extra  price  of  rents  in  that  coun- 
try. The  fanner  is  seldom,  there,  the  owner  of  the  soil, 
and  he  pays  a  rent  of  from  5  to  30  dollars  per  acre  ; 
bis  taxes  also  are  at  least  three  times  as  great  as  those 
paid  by  our  farmers.  Must  not  our  inferior  Success  in 
man}'^  of  the  operations  of  farming,  compared  to  that  of 
European  cultivators,  be  owing  to  some  radical  defects 
in  our  system  ?  We  believe  it  is  a  want  of  enterprizc 
among  the  farming  class  cf  our  countrymen. 

UTILITY    OF    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES. 

The  experience  of  ages,  the  increase  of  human 
knowledge,  and  its  more  general  diffusion,  tend  to  throw 
much  light  on  agriculture,  as  well  as  to  dissipate  preju- 
dices which  have  long  existed;  nor  can  it  be  doubted, 
that  whenever  a  spirit  of  emulation  and  enquiry  is  ex- 
cited among  the  farmers  of  any  country,  the  result  will 
be  beneficial  to  themselves  and  useful  to  the  community. 
So  necessary  has  it  been  considered  in  Europe  to  prose- 
cute agriculture,  that  many  persons  of  great  abilitiea 
(distin,8:ui«hed  in  the  -various  walks  of  life)  have  almost 
exclusively  devoted  their  time  and  talcnlsto  it  ;  societies 
have  been  formed,  liberally  su]>ported,  and  their  utility 
demonstrated.  They  have  well  repaid  every  individual 
who  has  contributed  by  his  wealth  and  intelligence  io 
render  them  respectable  and  useful. 

The  vast  improvement  cf  agriculture  in  Great  Britain, 
within  a  few  years,  is  at^cribed  to  the  attention  that  gen- 
tlemen of  fortune  and  leisure  have  paid  to  it,  and  to  the 
establishmenl  of  a  board  of  ngriculture,  ar»d  of  societies, 
to  foster  and  encourage  individuals,  and  to  bring  to  light 


UTILITY    OF    AGRICULTURAL  .SOCIETIES.  267 

new  discoveries.  A  combination  of  these  has  led  to  the 
high  state  of  cultivation  which  now  exists  in  England  ;  a 
country  which,  generally  speaking,  i^  less  favoured  by 
nature,  as  to  its  soil  than  our  own.  If  in  those  nations 
where  they  have  so  long  had  the  benefit  of  experi- 
ence in  i'arming,  their  importance  is  acknowledged,  and 
by  the  information  which  they  have  spread,  the  value  of 
land  has  increased,  and  its  products  been  greatly  aug- 
mented, can  we  hesitate  to  believe,  that  similar  effects 
will  be  produced  here,  if  our  societies  are  surticiently  en- 
^oiiraged,  and  enabfed  to  excite  an  honourable  compe- 
tition among  practical  farmers  ?  By  means  of  honorary 
rewards,  in  those  countries,  a  laudable  compeliiion  has 
been  excited  ;  experiments  have  been  made  on  extv'^n- 
sive  as  well  as  more  limited  scales  ;  new  modes  of  culti- 
vation have  been  successfully  attempied  ;  the  various 
grains  suited  to  the  climate  have  been  tried,  and  tiie  re- 
sults on  different  soils  taithfuily  staled  ;  those  species 
of  cattle  most  proper  for  labour,  for  the  dairy,  or  for 
food,  have  been  selected  or  introduced  ;  that  noble  ani- 
mal, the  horse,  has  deservedly  claimed  the  greatest  at- 
tention, and  t'uily  repays  the  care  wldch  has  been  be- 
stowed in  proc'iring  different  breeds  for  the  various 
purposes  to  wjiich  they  are  best  adapted  by  their  strength 
crfleetness;  the  kinds  of  sheep  remarkable  for  the 
quantity  or  quality  of  their  fleece,  or  best  s^iited  for  hu- 
man sustenance,  have  by  unremitted  care  and  juriicious 
selections  been  correctly  ascertained,  and  their  numbers 
greatly  increased  ;  the  most  profitable  swine  have  been 
sought  for,  and  the  means  pointed  out  of  faUing  them 
to  tbe  best  advantage  ;  implements  of  husbandry  have 
been  invented,  and  such  as  stood  the  test  of  repealed 
experiments  have  be. Ml  brought  into  use  ;  and  a  system 
of  farming  has  been  e  na!i!ished,  which,  by  a  rotation  of 
crops  for  different  soils,  >^nd  ihe  judicious  use  of  manures, 
preserves  the  land  iii  a  s^  Ue  most  likely  to  ensure  an  am- 
ple return  for  the  labour  and  '*^pense  bestowed  on  it. — 
Notwithstanding  all  that  has  ..oen  done,  they  think  it 
proper  to  coniinue  their  exertions,  and  to  endeavour  to 
attain  a  still  greater  degree  of  perfection. 

But  independent  of  the  light  of  experience,  the  ques- 
tion admits  of  the  most  full  and  satisfactory  deterniina- 


S68       "  VTILITY    OF   AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES. 

tion  in  the  affirmative.  Confining  ourselves  to  a  few  ©I 
the  more  obvious  views  of  the  question,  let  us  ask,  is 
there  any  thing  novel  or  absurd  in  the  idea  that  a  large 
number  of  persons,  by  associating  together  and  applying 
their  faculties  to  the  snme  subject  of  mutual  interest, 
may  thus  enlighten,  aid,  and  benefit  each  other?  Differ- 
ently constituted  by  nature  ;  brought  up  under  different 
circumstances  ;  having  had  different  opportunities  for  ob- 
servation, and  thus  having  been  led  to  take  different 
views  of  the  same  things,  is  it  not  naturally  and  most  ra- 
tionally to  be  expected,  that  what  one  may  never  have 
thought  of,  another  ma\  h;'Ve  had  the  opportunity  to  ex- 
amine ?  what  one  has  invfntfd,  another  may  impiove — 
what  one  has  never  tried,  another  may  have  submitted 
to  ihe  test  oJ"  experiment — and  what  one  may  be  igno- 
rant of,  another  may  know  ?  Thus  by  communicating 
one  to  another  all  that  each  individual  may  have  learn- 
ed by  study,  cb-ervation  or  experiment,  each  becomes 
possessed  of  the  whole  mass  of  inforn.ation,  and  receives 
the  full  benefit  of  the  collected  nisdom  and  experience 
of  all.  No  art  would  ever  be  improved  by  individual 
skill  in  any  ratio  equal  to  that  to  which  it  would  attain 
by  mutual  c<>mmunic3iion.  The  gi  eatt.  st  genius  that  the 
world  ever  produced  would  find  himselt  ujrch  Lenefiied, 
and  his  schemes  much  corrected  and  improved,  by  sub- 
mitting them  to  other". 

Agricultural  soci'-ties  fiirnish  one  of  the  mogt  effectu- 
al ntethods  for  the  eir culaiion  ot  useiul  iniormation.  At  ^ 
their  annual  n»eeiing,  useful  observa'ions  are  made,  ne\T 
fnciv  are  s  ated,  erurs  are  di,-coveren,  truths  are  estab- 
li«!»('d.  an  1  [iractical  knowledge,  derive!  from  experi- 
ence, is  elicited,  and  c(  mmunicaled  to  the  publick,  which 
olbervsise  might  have  remained  for  many  years  conlined 
wi'hin  H  very  limited  sphere. 

ivery  man  who  cuidvates*  the  ground  should  be  am- 
bit nu-;  to  contribute  S(  metlii  g  from  the  stock  ol  his 
lin«>\vif<^a:e,  whether  acquired  by  reading,  observation  or 
ex|  eii»r.c'%  to  tl-e  genc-ral  fund  of  agricultural  inlorma- 
tion.  Ii  be  i-  convinced  that  he  has  made  any  improve- 
ment-, '  !  :!  prtnj"^^'  to  be  n-ciul  to  his  fellow-creat- 
ur  -.  '  I  '  i  not  p^Tit'rm  the  part  of  a  patriot  nor  phi- 
lauihru^iai|  ii  he  does  not  put  mankind  in  possession  of 


UTILITY    OF    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES.  $6^ 

socb  improvements.  If  he  can  g.iin  any  equivnlent  for 
his  discoveries  by  virtue  of  patents,  preminms,  or  other- 
wise, let  him  ol»tain  it.  If  not,  he  will  do  well  to  hw 
them  before  the  public,  and  take  his  reward  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  having-  been  of  service  to  his  fellow-creat- 
ures. The  man  who  refuses  a  benefit  which  he  might 
bestow  without  injury  to  himself,  i^  but  iiitle  better  tliaa 
one  who  does  an  injury  without  receiving  any  benefit 
from  the  injurious  act.  The  latter  destroys  human  hap- 
piness, and  the  former  withholds  the  means  by  which 
iiappiness  might  have  existed. 

No  plan  perhaps  can  be  found  more  effectual  to  ex- 
tend a  practical  knowledge  of  ploughing,  than  the  com- 
peti  ions  excited  at  ploughing  matches. 

Another,  and  very  important  effect  of  these  institu- 
tions will  be,  to  cause  farmers  to  think  more  of  them- 
selves as  a  body,  and  of  the  respectability  of  their  pro- 
fession than  they  have  done. 

These  institutions  must  also  have  a  tendency  to  illus- 
trate tie  important  truth,  that  there  is  no  science  in 
which  so  great  a  variety  of  knowledge  is  necessary,  as 
that  of  agriculture.  When  this  truth  is  admitted,  pa- 
rents will  be  more  interested  in  the  education  of  their 
sons,  and  more  particular  in  bringing  them  up  to  the  pro- 
fession of  farmers.  If  schools  and  colleges  are  requisite 
to  promote  one  species  of  knowledge;  if  mi  iiary  and 
naval  academies  have  been  painnrzed  to  prf^mcte  an- 
other; is  it  true  of  agriculture  ahnc,  that  it  requires  no 
aid — that  art,  which  of  all  others,  is  the  most  important, 
and  contributes  most,  and  in  the  most  direct  and  visible 
manner  to  the  happiness,  wealth  and  prosperity  of 
society  ? 

Important  consequences  would  result  to  the  communi- 
ty, could  agricultural  societies  make  a  thorough  investi- 
gation every  year  into  the  state  of  farming-  in  their  res- 
pective districts,  for  the  purpose  of  publishing  the  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  each.  Such  an  investigation 
might  form  the  basis  of  a  series  of  systematic  efforts  oq 
the  part  of  these  societies  ;  and  act  as  a  stimulus  to  in- 
dustry. It  would  lead  to  a  consideration,  how  far  the 
aggregate  of  the  harvest  corresponded  with  the  capa- 
bilities of  the  soil,  assiated  by  a  judicious  husbandry.  It 
24 


270  UTILITY    OF    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES. 

would  be  perceivable,   at  one  view,   how  large  a  sum 
the  difference  would  be  between  the  gain  ot^  a  negligent, 
and  that  of  a  skilful  culture,  on  the  mass  of  crops  in  the 
whole  district.     The  great   difference  in  the  profits  of 
farras,  equal  in  extent  and  quality  of  soil,  would  lead  us 
to  inquire:   Is  it  in  the  quality  of  the  implements?  Is  it 
in  the  character  of  the  stock  ?  Is  it,  that  in  one  case,  ar- 
tificial means  are  made  use  of  to  make  manure,  and  not 
in  the    other?     Is   it    in   the   greater   economy   of  the 
household  ?     Is  it  that  tl  e  wet  meadow  is  on  one  farm 
ditched  and    warmed    with   a  coat   of   gravel,   and  not 
on  the    other?     Is   it  that   the   fruit  trees  are   pruned 
and  kept   clean,  and  the   soil  kept  open  around   them 
while   young,   in  the  one   case,  and   not  in  the  other? 
Is   it  that    the  barn  is    open   between    the  boards,  and 
lets  in    the   weather,  so   as   to    injure  the   hay  in  one 
instance,  and  not  in  the   other  ?    Is  it  that  the  farmer  in 
one  case  ploughs   his  land  in  the  fall,   and   in  the  other 
does  not?    Questions  of  this  sort  would  naturally  arise 
in  seeking  the   results  for  the  year,  and  the  answers  to 
them   would  furnish  a  mass  of  valuable  facts,  that  Djight 
lead  to  reform.     Farmers  should  be  awakened    to    feel 
that  they  are  united  by   the  ties  of  interest,  and  that  by 
lending  the  aid  of  their  council  and  experience  to  teach 
each  other,  they  may  one  and  all  be  beuelited.     To  this 
end,  it  might  be  useful  to  «hew  the  sum  of  the  produce 
of  one  farm  added  to  that  of  another,  and  that  of  all  the 
farms    of  u  county,  or  state,  gathered  into    one  gross 
amount,  and  held  up  as  an  object  of  interest  and  impor- 
tance,   and  set    in  comparison   with   other  counties    or 
states.     For  though  a  general  knowledge  of  agriculture 
may  be  diffused  over  a  great  country,  it  is  found  by  ex- 
perience, that  it  cannot  be  materially  improved  unless 
by  comparing  the  various  practices  which  subsist  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  country.     Whenever  men  unite 
in  a  common  object  of  interest  and  honor,  whatever  in- 
telligence and  activity  belong  naturally  to  the  few,   are 
always  in  a  greater   or   less  degree  transfused  into   the 
whole. 

JMany  of  our  fiirmers  when  they  see  accounts  of  ex- 
traordinary crops  raised  in  our  country,  are  apt  to  sup- 
pose, that  the  difference  between  a  common  crop,  and  a 


UTILITY    OF    AGRIClULTURAL    SOCIETIES.  271 

Tery  large  one,  is  the  effect  of  so  much  additional  labor 
'and  manure  as  would  exceed  in  value  the  difference  be- 
tween the  crops.  Hence,  it  is  so  rarely  the  case,  that 
farmers  avail  themselves  of  the  experience  of  the  few 
who  have  been  greatly  successful  from  superior  method, 
diligence,  and  skill.  And  although  the  whole  mystery 
may  be  resolved  into  thorough  tillage,  clean  husbandry, 
and  a  liberal  use  of  manure,  the  common  cultivator  will 
have  it,  in  the  face  of  well  authenticated  facts,  that 
there  is  some  secret  fallacy,  and  that  he  of  course,  who 
has  the  best  managed  and  most  productive  farm  gets  the 
least  profit,  and  that  a  man  is  poor  in  proportion  to  the 
magnitude  of  his  crops  !  The  only  means  of  counter- 
acting this  unfavorable  id<?a,  is  to  bring  frequently  into 
view  of  the  farmer,  examples  as  near  home  as  they  can 
be  found,  of  substantial  prolit  as  the  fruit  of  every  im- 
provement. A^Ticuitural  societies  may  do  this,  not  on- 
ly by  means  of  the  exhibitions  and  statements,  offered 
at  their  annual  shows,  but  by  disseminating  information, 
through  the  medium  of  the  newspapers,  of  all  the  im- 
provements on  particular  farms  which  come  within  their 
observation.  The  effects  of  negligent  husbandry,  ex- 
hibited in  its  consequences  when  it  pervades  a  whole 
county,  might,  we  think,  afford  an  impressive  lesson. 

Although  these  societies,  owing  to  the  want  of  patron- 
age, have  effected  but  little  in  some  parts  of  our  coun- 
try, there  is  no  reason  for  discouragement :  on  the  con- 
trary, when  we  consider  the  recent  date  of  their  estab- 
lishment, and  the  difticulties  they  have  had  to  encoun- 
ter, we  shall  find  more  occasion  for  rejoicing  that  so 
much  has  been  done,  than  for  being  disheartened  be» 
cause  more  has  not  been  effected.  The  agricultural 
class  of  the  community  has  been  almost  universally  at- 
tached to  established  practice.  Many  of  our  larmers 
seem  to  think  it  a  sufficient  justification  of  their  S3'tem  of 
farming,  whether  successful  or  not,  that  they  have  al- 
ways pursued  it,  and  that  thoir  fathers  did  so  before 
them  ;  they  listen  with  unwillingness  and  distrust  to  any 
proposed  innovation,  and  look  upon  the  person  who  re- 
commends it  as  a  visionary  man,  whose  councils  it  would 
be  ruinous  to  follow  :  in  short,  it  is  the  misfortune  of  too 
man}^  of  our  farmers  that  they  think  the}'  know  enough 


272  UTILITX-    OF    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES. 

of  their  profession  already,  and  that  they  therefore  stand 
in  no  need  of  any  additional  light  upon  it.  Considering 
these  things  it  is  not  so  much  to  be  wondered  at,  that 
there  are  not  more  persons  belonging  to  these  societies. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  desired,  that  the  prejudices  which 
still  exist  in  the  minds  of  some,  against  agricultural  so- 
cieties, may  soon  give  place  to  a  full  conviction  of  their 
utility,  and  it  is  incumbent  on  us  to  neglect  no  opportu- 
nity of  pointing  out  and  endeavouring  to  convince  our 
fellow-citizens  of  the  advantages  of  such  institutions. — 
It  is  to  be  hoped,  that  those  who  really  possess  the  means 
of  contributing,  will,  instead  of  relaxing  in  the  noble 
■work,  increase  the  support  which  they  have  been  in 
use  to  afford,  and  that  farmers  in  general  will  see  the 
propriety  of  becoming  members  of  them. 

We  conclude,  by  quoting  Washington's  opinion  of  Ag- 
ricultural societies.  He  remarks  :  It  will  not  be  doubt- 
ed, that  with  reference  either  to  individual  or  national 
welfare,  agriculture  is  of  primary  importance.  In  pro- 
portion as  nations  advance  in  population  and  other  cir- 
cumstances of  maturity,  this  truth  becomes  more  appa- 
rent, and  renders  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  more  and 
more  an  object  of  pubUc  patronage.  Institutions  for 
promoting  it,  grow  up,  supported  by  the  public  purse  : 
and  to  what  objects  can  it  be  dedicated  with  greater 
propriety  ?  Among  the  means  vvhich  have  been  em- 
ployed to  this  end,  none  have  been  attended  with 
greater  success  than  the  establishment  of  Boards,  com- 
posed of  proper  characters,  charged  with  collecting 
and  diffusing  information,  and  enabled  by  premiums 
and  small  pecuniary  aids,  to  encourage  and  assist  a 
spirit  of  discovery  and  improvement.  This  species 
of  establishment  contributes  doubly  to  the  increase 
of  improvement,  by  drawing  to  a  common  centre  the 
results,  every  where,  of  individual  skill  and  observa- 
tion, and  spreading  them  over  the  nation.  Experience, 
accordingly  has  shown,  that  they  are  very  cheap  instru- 
ments of  immense  national  benefit. 


ADVICE  TO  A  YOUNG  FARMER.  273 

Objects  of  attention^  with  a  viezv  to  the  settlement  and  suc^ 
cess  of  a  young  agriculturalist. 

Let  this  be  held  the  Farmer's  creed, 

For  stock,  seek  out  the  choicest  breed  ; 

In  peace  and  plenty  let  them  feed. 

Your  land  soav  with  the  best  ef  seed  ;  ^- 

Let  it  nor  dung,  nor  dressing  need  ; 

Inclose  and  drain  it  with  all  speed. 

And  you  will  soon  be  rich  indeed. 

Sinclair. 

It  is  an  object  ef  extreme  importance  and  difficulty  to 
awaken  due  attention,  without  exciting  useless  anxiety. 
In  selecting  a  situation  in  which  to  exercise  tiie  occupa- 
tion of  a  fai'raer,  various  circumstances  are  minutely  and 
deliberately  to  be  regarded,  and  great  consideration  is 
required  to  form  an  accurate  comparison  of  advantages 
and  disadvantages.  After  these  have  been  fully  ascer- 
tained, a  balance  is  to  be  drawn,  and  a  decision  to  be  made. 
More  attention  than  time  is  requisite  for  this  purpose, 
and  hesitating,  broken  application,  v/ill  often  occupy  a 
longer  period  in  arriving  at  an  inj'o.dicious  determination, 
than,  with  persevering  and  dispassionate  examination,  is 
necessary  to  obtain  a  correct  one.  The  soil  is  an  ob- 
ject of  particular  consideration,  in  reference  to  a  vast 
variety  of  circumstances  ;  as  to  its  stiffness  and  moisture  ; 
levelness  or  slope  ;  its  exposure  or  its  stoniness  ;  the 
manuring,  draining,  and  fencing  that  may  be  required  ; 
the  state  of  the  roads  ;  the  accessibility  of  markets  ; — 
the  prices  of  manufactures,  of  produce,  of  labour,  &sc. 
To  tix  on  good  land  is  a  prudential  general  direction. — 
For  such  it  is  not  easy,  with  ordinary  discretion,  to  pay 
too  much,  while  for  pour  soils  a  small  price  very  fre- 
quently exceeds  their  worth.  No  degree  of  fertility 
should  tempt  a  man  to  purchase  in  an  unhealthy  part  of 
the  country,  nor  the  pleasantest  situation  in  a  barren 
part.  Examine  how  the  neighbouring  inhabitants  fare. 
It  is  best  to  purchase  from  a  good  husbandman  and  a 
good  improver. 

Independently  of  the  general  salubrity  of  the    place 
where  farm  mansions  are  proposed  to  be  built,  the  nature 
24* 


274  ADVICE   TO    A    YOUxVG    FARMER. 

of  the  air  and  water  requires  particular  notice  ;  tiie  form- 
er should  be  pure  and  temperate,  the  latter  wholesome 
and  easily  obtained.  The  most  healthy  spot,  therefore, 
ought  to  be  selected  for  building  the  house  ;  which, 
where  choice  of  situation  can  be  commanded,  should 
be  as  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  farm  as  circumstances 
■will  allow,  and  be  exposed  neither  to  the  summer  heats, 
nor  to  the  rage  of  the  winds  and  storms  of  winter. — 
Hence  a  gentle  elevation  will  be  found  the  most  eligible. 
The  buildings  should  be  strong,  substantial,  and  conven- 
ient. Trees  planted  around  buildings,  occasion  a  cool, 
refreshing,  healthy  air  and  shade  during  the  heat  of 
summer,  and  very  much  break  t^e  cold  winds  and  tem- 
pests from  every  quarter  in  the  winter.  It  is  highly  im- 
proper to  build  near  ponds,  or  low  wet  lands,  because 
the  miasma  which  proceeds  from  them  is  so  productive 
of  fevers. 

The  constituent  parts  of  a  good  system  of  agricnlture 
are  few  and  simple.  To  prepare  the  earth,  by  enrich- 
ing, if  necessary,  by  draining,  by  tilling  sufficiently,  by 
securing  the  crops  with  proper  enclosures,  and  provid- 
ing suitable  buildings  for  their  preservation,  when  har- 
vested, in  connexion  with  npaking  suitable  appropriations 
of  lands  for  different  kinds  of  crop*,  constitute  a  good 
system  of  husbandry. 

But  there  are  other  things  necessary  to  the  success 
of  the  farmer.  Industry,  economy,  and  system,  are  in- 
dispensably requisite  to  the  improvement  of  agriculture  ; 
and,  without  these,  no  one  has  a  right  to  anticipate  suc- 
cess. Without  industry,  nothing  important  can  be  ac- 
complished ;  without  economy,  the  best  directed  efforts 
will  prove  abortive;  and,  without  order  and  system, 
confusioa  will  obtain  in  every  part,  and  the  most  efficient 
energies  be  deranged.  It  is  a  maxim,  that  diligence 
and  perseverance  will  surmount  every  obstacle,  howev- 
er difficult ;  and  that  with  determinate  resolution,  maa 
may  accomplish  any  object  to  which  he  shall  prudently 
and  skilfully  direct  his  efforts.  The  duty,  the  com- 
fort, the  convenience,  and  the  happiness  of  man,  all 
require  him  to  be  industrious  and  persevering;  the  en- 
ergies of  his  mind,  and  the  powers  of  his  body,  are  suited 
to  activity,  ia  whatever  employment  he  may  be  engag- 
ed. 


ADVICE    TO    A    YOITNG    FARMER.  275 

At  the  foundation  of  a  proper  arrangement,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  have  a  plan  of  the  farm,  or  at  least  a  list  ot 
the  fields  or  parcels  of  land  into  which  it  is  divided, 
describing  their  productive  extent,  the  soil,  the  preced- 
ing crops,  the  cultivation  given  to  each,  and  the  species 
and  quantity  of  manure  they  have,  severall3i,  received. 
The  future  treatment  of  each  lield,  for  a  succession  of 
years,  may  then  be  resolved  on  with  more  probability 
of  success. 

With  the  assistance  of  such  a  list,  every  autumn,  aa 
arrangement  of  crops  for  the  ensuing  year,  ought  to  be 
made  out ;  classing  the  fields,  or  pieces,  according  to  the 
purposes  for  which  they  are  intended.  The  quantity 
of  each  crop,  whether  plough-land  or  mowing,  as  well 
as  the  extent  of  ground  intended  for  pasture,  will  thus 
be  ascertained.  It  will  not  then  be  difhcult  to  anticipate 
what  number  of  horses  or  oxen  and  laborers  will  be  re- 
quired during  the  season  ;  nor  the  stock  that  will  be 
necessary  for  the  intended  quantity  of  pasture  land. — 
The  works  of  summer  and  harvest  will  be  foreseen, 
and  proper  hands  engaged  in  due  time  to  perform 
them.  ^ 

As  nothing  contributes  more  to  facility  and  satisfac- 
tion in  business,  than  to  prepare  for  what  must  be  done, 
a  farmer  should  arrange  his  plans  regarding  his  crops, 
for  three  or  four  years  ;  regarding  team  labor,  when 
frost  and  bad  weather  do  not  intervene,  for  as  many 
months  ;  and  regarding  hand  labor  for  as  many  weeks, 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  A  general  memo- 
randum list  of  business  to  be  done,  is  therefore  essen- 
tial, that  nothing  may  escape  the  memory,  and  that  the 
most  requisite  work  may  be  brought  forward  first,  if 
suitable  to  the  state  of  the  weather. 

The  following  rules,  connected  with  the  arrangement 
and  the  successful  management  of  a  farm,  are  particu- 
larly to  be  recommended : 

1.  The  farmer  ought  to  rise  early,  and  to  see  that 
others  do  so,  that  both  his  example  be  followed,  and  his 
orders  obeyed.  An  hour  is  gained  in  this  way,  which 
many  farmers  lose  by  indolence  :  this  is  a  material  ob, 
ject  where  si  number  of  hands  are  employed. 


27o  ADVICE  TO  A  YOUXG  FARMER. 

2.  The  whole  farm  should  be  regularly  inspected, 
and  not  onij  eve^y  field  examinea,  but  every  lieast  seen, 
at  least  once  a  day. 

3.  Every  means  should  be  thought  of,  to  climuiish  la- 
bor, or  to  increase  its  power. 

4.  A  farmer  ought  never  to  engage  in  a  work,  whether 
of  ordmary  practice,  or  of  intended  iniprovemeat,  ex- 
cept after  the  most  careful  inquiries;  but  when  begun, 
he  ought  to  proceed  in  it  with  much  attention  and  per- 
severance, until  he  has  given  it  a  fair  trial. 

5.  It  is  a  main  object  in  management,  not  to  attempt 
too  much,  and  never  to  begin  a  vvorij;,  without  a  proba- 
bility of  being  able  to  finish  it  in  due  season. 

6.  Every  farmer  should  have  a  book,  for  inserting  all 
those  useiul  hints,  which  are  so  frequently  occurring  in 
conversation,  in  books,  or  in  the  practiciil  management 
of  a  farm.  Loose  pieces  of  paper  are  apt  to  be  mislaid 
or  lost,  and  when  a  man  wishes  to  avail  himself  of  them, 
for  examining  a  subject  previously  investigated  and  dis- 
cussed, he  loses  more  time  in  searching  ibr  the  memo- 
randum, than  would  be  sutficient  for  making  half  a  doz- 
en new  ones.  But  if  such  matters  are  gntered  into  a 
book,  and  if  that  book  has  an  index,  he  can  always  find 
what  he  wants,  and  his  knowledge  will  be  in  a  progress- 
ive state  of  improvement,  as  he  will  thus  be  enabled  to 
derive  advantage  from  his  former  ideas  and  experience. 
Without  some  record  of  this  kind,  the  farmer  may  grow 
old,  wilhout  growmg  wise,  and  many  material  circum- 
stances must  escape  his  memory,  and  be  lost.  It  is  from 
v.'anting  the  facts  which  such  a  book  might  contain,  that 
we  see  farmers  so  tardy  in  improvement,  so  positive  ia 
error,  and  at  three  score,  so  little  advanced  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  their  profession.  He  may  make  this  book  a 
valuable  legacy  to  his  children.  It  may  teach  them  our 
present  mode  of  husbandry,  and  they  may  derive  bene- 
fit not  only  from  his  success,  but  from  his  failure.  Im- 
provements will  be  perpetuated. 

By  the  adoption  of  these  rules,  every  farmer  will  be 
master  of  his  time,  so  that  every  thing  required  to  be 
done,  will  be  performed  at  the  proper  moment;  and 
not  delaved  tili  the  season  and  opportunity  have  been 
i6st.         '  -^ 


ADVICE  TO  A  YOUNG  FARMER.  277 

To  prevent  random  speculations  and  ruinous  project?, 
xvith  their  ill  consequences  of  every  kind,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, that  it  is  of  the  very  first  importance,  that  per- 
sons engaged,  particularly  on  a  large  scale,  in  the  pro- 
fession of  agriculture,  should  keep  correct  accounts  of 
all  their  transactions,  profits  and  losses.  The  advantages  of 
clear  accounts  are  obvious  in  every  other  occupation  of  life. 
Persons  who  are  engaged  in  speculations  of  merchandize, 
t(\  any  extent,  and  who  are  known  not  to  attend  to  this 
department,  are  always  supposed  to  be  in  dangerous  cir- 
cumstances. But  agriculture  is  erroneously  considered 
by  many  as  an  exception  to  all  other  species  of  business, 
that  it  may  be  engaged  in  without  preliminary  study,  and 
is  capable  of  being  properly  conducted,  even  to  a  large 
extent,  without  any  regular  accounts,  necessary  as  these 
are  admitted  to  be  in  other  situations ! 

It  is  a  maxim  in  the  science  of  agriculture,  that  by 
displacing  a  weed  you  make  room  for  a  useful  plant. — 
The  idea  may  be  extended  and  applied  to  the  habits  of 
men.  By  exterminating  habits  of  idleness,  intempe- 
rance and  litigation,  room  is  left  for  all  those  innocesit 
and  useful  habits,  which  insure  to  the  possessor,  inde- 
pendence, and  respectability  at  home  and  abroad — and 
the  fire-side  blessings  of  harmony  and  ease.  By  the 
substitution  of  which,  on  the  ruins  of  those  demoralizing 
practices,  which  are  so  prevalent  in  many  parts  of  our 
country,  the  American  farmer  not  only  improves  his 
domestic  condition,  but  renders  himself  worthy  of  that 
high  rank  and  distinction  in  society  which  both  the  theo- 
ry and  practice  of  our  government  have  assigned  him, 
and  which  alone  can  render  him  capable  of  appreciating 
the  blessings  he  enjoys,  or  thankful  to  the  God  who 
gave  them. 

The  use  of  ardent  spirits  can  scarcely  be  indulged  in, 
without  the  certainty  of  an  injur3^  The  system  in 
health  requires  only  nutriment,  and  the  addition  of  u 
stim'ilant  so  powerful  as  ardent  spirits,  is  foreign  to  its 
wants,  and  of  course  must  be  hurtful  in  its  effects.  To 
good  health,  no  addition  can  be  made,  and  of  conse- 
quence, any  change  produced  must  be  a  recession  to- 
wards disease. 


278 


ADVICE  TO  A  YOUNG  FARMER. 


Too  true  was  the  assertion  of  Lord  B;icon,  that  all  the 
crimes  on  the  earth  do  not  destroy  so  many  of  the  hu- 
man race,  nor  alienate  so  much  property,  as  drunken- 
ness. It  expels  reason — drowns  the  memory — is  the 
beg-gars  companion — and  the  true  and  only  cause  of  the 
vast  increase  uf  crime  in  the  work).  There  is  certainly 
no  character  which  appears  so  despicable  as  that  of  a 
drunkard ;  he  displays  every  little  spot  in  his  soul  in  its 
utmost  deformity.  When  once  the  youth  become^^  a 
devotee  at  the  shrine  of  Bacchus,  and  fond  of  his  liba- 
tions, it  is  time  for  him  to  think.  Let  Iiim  not  lull  his 
conscience  with  the  delusive  idea  of  quitting  when  he 
chooses,  but  take  a  noble  stand,  and  from  that  moment 
cease  indulging-  in  his  cup.  Drunkenness,  that  fell  de- 
stroyer of  mind  and  morals,  has  elicited  the  exhortation 
of  the  preacher — the  pen  of  the  moralist — the  warning 
of  the  physician — the  remonstrance  of  relations,  and  the 
yawning  of  the  grave — but  all  will  not  do.  It  has 
reached  an  awful  and  alarming  height — it  daily  in- 
creases. It  is  known  to  require  an  extraordinary  and 
noble  firmness  of  the  heart  to  resist  its  blandishments 
end  allurements.  Is  it  then  the  temptation  you  are  to 
quit  when  you  choose  ? — Ah  !  no — young  friends,  heark- 
en to  advice ;  when  the  seductive  goblet  is  offered  to 
your  lij)s,  think  not  you  will  once  more  sip  the  liquid 
poison  because  you  can  quit  when  you  choose  ;  but  con- 
sider that  cup  may  probably  be  the  one  that  will  establish 
that  habit  with  j'ou,  which  you  will  never  be  able  there- 
after to  conquer,  and  dash  the  proffered  cup  with  indig- 
nation to  the  ground.  (For  suitable  drinks  in  hot 
weather,  see  the  article  Harvesting.) 

When  youn^  men  take  to  gardening  nnd  planting,  it 
is  an  happy  circXmistance,  arjd  they  should  lose  no  time 
in  the  business,  for  it  is  a  tiling  that  persons  advanced 
in  years  have  often  repented  of.  It  produces  considera- 
ble satisfaction,  and  a  peculiar  pleasure,  in  the  evening 
of  life,  when  a  man  can  point  at  good  trees,  and  say, 
*■'•  These  are  my  own  planting  /"  but  it  v.ere  a  superior 
thing  to  add,  "  And  of  my  own  raising  too."" 

It  is  the  simultaneous  duty  of  th=>  tarmer,  (says  Mr. 
Cowen^  of  N.  York.)  to  superadd  to  the  cultivation  of 
his  farm,  that  of  his  mind  ;  and  to  extend  the  same  care 


ADVICE  TO  A  YOUNG  FARMER.  279 

to  the  mind  of' his  fnmilj^  For  this  purpose  it'sboul<]  be 
his  object,  in  the  lirst  place,  to  acquii-e  himsell,  and  to 
impart  to  his  offspring  at  least  a  common  ediicntion. — 
This  is  a  good  foundation  for  mental  imi)rovejnent,  but 
nothing  more.  It  should  be  regarded  in  every  man's 
hands,  merely  as  the  instrument  of  rearing  and  establish- 
ing that  intellectual  superstructure,  which  is  to  give  hitn 
character,  consecpience,  ca[)acity  and  happiness  in  the 
various  stations  he  may  be  called  to  sustain  in  society. 

There  is  no  greater  mistake,  than  in  imaginino-,  lii.^t 
because  a  scholar' has  mastered  his  spelling,  rea-Jin.^, 
writing,  grammar  and  arithmetic,  he  is  then  entitled  to 
dismiss  his  books,  take  up  his  farming  tools,  and  bend  a 
single  eye  to  his  agricultural  avocaliQus.  Such  a  course 
is  inexcusable.  A  wide  and  unbounded  field  of  knowl- 
edge lies  beiore  him,  inviiing  bis  culture,  of  which  he  as 
yet  possesses  no  more  than  the  utensils  for  improve- 
ment. 

Nothing  but  absolute  poverty  can  excuse  a  man  from 
the  purchase  of  books,  and  attention  to  study.  But  the 
farmer  in  the  mi  Idle  walks  of  life,  who  wi:h  his  brethren 
constitutes  the  greal  body  of  our  popu:ation,  no  matter 
how  numerous  bis  family,  if  bred  as  they  should  be  to 
habits  of  strict  economy  and  industry — he  has  leisure  to 
pass  without  employment  in  business,  many  of  his  lono- 
•winter  evenings,  and  much  of  the  day  time  during  the 
same  period,  in  the  improvement  of  his  mind.  He  has 
the  means  of  purchasing  a  small  collection  of  hooks  for 
purposes  of  the  most  immediate  utility,  to  serve  as  a 
manual  for  himself  and  family,  and  to  till  up  those  little 
interstices  of  leisure  continually  occuring,  which  the  po- 
et calls  "  Catching  the  transient  hour,  and  improving- 
each  moment  as  it  flies."  While  his  more  enlarged  re- 
searches are  cheaply  and  liberall}'^  supplied  by  the  well 
selected  public  library  of  the  neighbourhood.  Books, 
newspapers,  kc.  principally  devoted  to  agricultural  sub- 
jects, should  occupy  an  important  share  of  his  attention. 

If  the  farmer  is  advanced  in  life,  he  most  probably  has 
children  who  will  mould  their  future  lives  by  his  exam- 
ple ;  and  he  already  tills  a  station  which  gives  am})le 
play  for  all  the  knowledge  lie  can  place  in  store.  He 
i^  the  member  of  a  great  and  rising  republic,  whose  con- 


280  ADVICE  TO  A  YOUNG  FARMER. 

sfituUcn  and  general  policy  invite  his  scrutiny  ;  in  (he 
selection  of  whose  functionaries  he  is  annually  called  to 
assist;  upon  whose  conduct  he  sits  in  judgment.  In  the 
exercise  of  so  important  a  duty,  what  speed  can  he 
make,  without  tlie  aid  of  that  cool  monitor,  a  well  in- 
structed understanding-? 

To  form  the  character  of  the  mere  elector,  he  should 
study  his  national  and  state  constitution  with  its  ablest 
commentators.  He  should  examine  the  hislcry  of  na- 
tions, their  rise,  their  progress,  their,  decay,  and  final 
extinction,  lie  should  understand  the  resources,  the 
geography,  and  the  religious  and  moral  habits  ot  his  own 
country.  He  should  iiivestigate  the  spirit  of  her  laws, 
and  search  out  her  commercial  relations.  Until  he  does 
so,  he  cannot  appieciaie  the  conduct  of  his  rulers.  Dit- 
ficuliies,  (disasters,  and  itieviiaLle  misfortunes  are  con- 
iounded  with  faults  and  crimes  ;  or  even  the  most  up- 
right, beneficial  and  prosperous  efforts  are  metamor- 
phosed into  siate  viilany,  by  those  who  are  interested  to 
hoodwink  the  master  in  his  search  to  determine  the 
merit  of  the  servant.  His  ignorance  and  credulity  are 
thus  made  the  mere  sport  of  the  artful  and  desigtiing 
knave,  whom  he  gratifies  periraps  at  the  expense  of  an 
able  fathful  delegate.  ,.^a^ 

Again — By  a  judicious  course  of  reading  and  reflec- 
tion he  disperses  the  darkness  and  terror  which  v\i.l 
ever  attend  superstition  and  ignorance.  He  forms  a 
^^^m  re  correct  esiimate  of  the  duties,  fiowing  from  the 
relaiion  to  his  lamiiy,  to  society,  and  to  his  God  ! — Be- 
comes bett(;r  contented  with  the  world,  smf  oths  the  as- 
perities and  removes  the  peevishness  and  pueriiities  of 
age.  He  of  all  others  is  best  qualified  to  attain  and  en- 
joy that  enviable  state  of  human  happiness,  so  elegant- 
ly described  by  the  Poet  of  the  Seasons  : 

Rural  quiet,  friendship,  books, 

Ease,  and  alternate  labor,   useful  life, 

Progressive  virtue,  and  appioving  heaven. 


CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  .^i? 

In  the  compilatioQ  of  the  foregoing  sheets,  much 
more  time  and  labor  have  been  required  than  was  at 
first  anticipated.  The  pubUcation  of  the  work  has  in 
consequence  been  delayed  several  months  longer,  than 
the  time  calculated  upon,  when  the  proposals  were 
issued. 

Owing  to  the  numerous  sources,  whence  we  have 
gleaned  materials  for  almost  every  article,  (not  less  than 
80  volumes  having  been  examined  in  m;iking  the  com- 
pilation,) it  has  not  been  thought  necessary  to  refer  to 
every  publication  from  which  extracts  have  been  made. 
But  we  tjiink  it  proper  to  observe,  that  we  have  gener- 
ally u?ed  the  language  of  others,  whose  opinions  coin- 
cided with  our  own. 


25 


.W 


# 


m. 


ERRATA. 


Page  13,  line  2  from  bottom,  for  whenever,  read  wJien  even :  p  17, 1 2 
from  bottom,  for  good,  r  yard ;  p  18,  1  7  from  bottom,  for  conceived,  r 
concerned ;  p  22, 1  8  from  top,  for  simple,  r  single  ,•  p  26, 114  from  bottom, 
for  must,  read  most;  p  51,  1  11  from  top,  the  word  better,  after  be,  is  left 
out ;  p  52,  1  5  from  bottom,  for  especially,  r  excessively  ;  p  53,  in  the  rim- 
ing title,  Fallowing  is  improperly  continued  through  many  pages ;  p  76, 
)  7  from  bottom,  for  a6sor6e^,  t  absorbent  ;  p  83,  I  13  from  bottom,  for 
their,  r  these  ;  p  93, 1  5  from  top,  fox  post,  x  port ;  p  103, 1  13  from  top,  for 
■new,  r  now  ;  p  124,  at  the  commencement  of  the  article  on  Cabbages,  at 
the  Sdparagrapli,  the  word  Cabbages  was  omitted  ;  p  126,  1  15  from  top, 
for  clear,  x  clean ;  p  127,  1  6  from  top,  for  the7n,  x  their ;  p  133,  1 2  from  top, 
for  not  quicken,  x  rot  quicker ;  p  145,  for  Fall  Fescue  Grass,  x  Tall  Fescue 
Grass  ;  p  153,  1  13  from  top,  for  best,  r  beast;  p  159, 1  8  from  top,  for 
stalls,  r  stale;  p  160,  line  18  from  bottom,  fox  principle,  x  principal  ;  p 
165,  1  3  and  23  from  top,  for  yearning,  x  yeaning ;  p  171,  1  2  from  bottom, 
for  lime  ashes,  x  live  ashes  ;  p  174, 1  15  from  bottom,  for  the  rich,  x  this  rich  ; 
p  180, 1  13  from  bottom,  for  leveling,  r  beveling  ;  p  182, 1 15  from  bottom, 
for  boughs,  X  bows ;  p  196, 1  4  from  bottom,  for  where,  x  lohen ;  p  200,  line 
12  from  top,  for  invest,  r  invert;  p206,  1  21  from  bottom,  fox  base,  x  bare; 
p  222, 1  18  from  bottom,  after  in,  the  word  the  is  left  out ;  p  233,  1  1  and 
3  from  bottom,  for  butter,  r  batter ;  p  234,  I  3  from  bottom,  for  thin,  r 
their  ;  p  243, 1  9  from  top,  for  washed,  r  mashed;  1  11,  for  musk,  r  must ; 
p  261, 1 4  from  bottom,  for  where,  r  ivhen. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Ashes                 -                 -                 -                 -  68 

Apple  Pomace              -             .             -             -  73 

Apple  Trees     -        -             -             -              -  186 

Apples,  gathering  and  preserving  of                 -  201 

Asparagus           _             .             -             .             -  232 

Agriculture,  British  and  American,  compared       -  263 

Agricultural  Societies,  Utility  of          -             -  266 

Advice  to  a  Young  Farmer         _             -             -  273 

Books,  necessity  of  consulting             -             -  19 

Brick  and  Lime  Rubbish             -             -             -  73 

Barley              .             .             .             .             -  97 

Buck  Wheat             .              .              -              .  99 
Beans             _              .               ,               -              123—223 

Butter             -             -             ...  177 

Budding  or  Inoculating                 .                 -  204 

Beets             -              -             -             -             -  228 

Broom  Corn         -----  236 

Birds             -             ...             -  247 

Bees              -----  248 

Bushes             -            -             -             -             -  256 

Beer             -              -             r              -             -  258 

Composts             -----  73 

Culmiferous  Crops  -"  -  -  -  81 
Carrots  .  .  -  -  120—229 
Cabbages             -             .             .             .           124—224 


284 


IxNDEX. 


Cheese             -             -             -  -             -            181 

Canker  Worm             -             -  -             -             199 

Caterpillars              '-               .  .             >             201 

Curculio              -             -             -  -             .         208 

Cherry  Tree             ...  -              208 

Cider             -             -             -  -             .             210, 

Cauliflower  and  Broccoli            -  -             .         226 

Cucumbers             -             -             -  -             -     231 

Cress               -             -             _  .             .             234 

Cuttings             -             -             .  _             _          236 

Currants           -             -             -  -             -           238 

Currant  Wine              -             .           .>  _             2S9 

Cellars           -             -             -  -             -             260 

Draining             -             -             -  .             .           54 

Dead  Animals               -             -  -             -             73 

Drilling             -             -             -  -             -          106 

Experiments,  Importance  of        -  -             -         13 

Earthen  Ware             -             -  -             -             260 

Farms,  Size  of            -             -  -             -              23 

Farms,  division  of           -             -  -             -           37 

Fences                 -                 -  -                 -           37 

Fallowing                 -                 -  -                 -      53 

Flooding             -                  -  -                 -            68 

Fish  Manure                 -                  -  -                 72 

Flax                 -                 -                 -  -             131 

Fruit  Trees                 -                 -  -                 184 

"       'i         Transplanting  of  -             -             193 

"       "         Ploughing  among  -                 -       196 

'i       "         Manuring                 -  -                196 

"       "         Pruning         -  -                 -          197 

"       "         Canker                   -  -                  198 

*»       '■<■         Moss  and  scaly  bark  -                 -       198 

"       "         Method  of  forcing  them  to  blossom 
and  bear  fruit 


2U9 


INDEX.  285 

Gypsum            -                -  -                -             66 

Grasses                     -  -                     •              135 

"        Clover                   -  -                  138 

«        Herd's  Grass  -                   -              140 

«         Lucern                     <-  -                     141 

«         Sainfoin             -  -                      -         142 

"         Redtop             -       '  -                 -                143 

"         Orchard  Grass     ^  -               -               -       143 

"         Tall  Oat  Grass  -                 -                144 

"         Fowl  Meadow  Grass  -                 -           144 

"         Striped-leaved  Reed  Grass             -                 144 

"         Cichory  or  Succory,  &c.       -                 -         .144 


Grafting                   -                  -  -                  189 

Gardening                         -  -                   -           214 

"         Tools         -               -  '    -                     216 

«  •      Preparation  of  the  Ground  -           217 

"*         Manure                    -  -                      217 

"    Change  of  Crops  -        -      217 

«    Seeds        -  -         217 

♦   "         Planting         -  -                   -              219 

"         Thinning                *  -                  -         220 

"         Hoeing  and  Weeding  -                  220 

"         Transplanting         -  -               -             221 

it         Watering                     -  -                    221 

Gardens,  Fruits  cultivated  in  -                 -           236 

Goosberries             -                  -  -                   239 

Goosberry  Wine              ,  -                 -             240 

Grape  Vines               -  -                   -               240 

Hedges             -                   -  -                   -        39 

Harrowing                 -                 -  -                   50 

Hoeing             -                 -  -                     -           52 

Harvesting             ->                    -  -                      107 

Hemp             -                  -  -                 -             129 


i286  INDEX. 

Hops                     -  -                    -                   134 

Haymaking                 -  -                     -           147 

Horses                 -  -                      -                   158 

Horse  Rakes                 .  .                 .                160 

Hand  Plough             -  -                     -           261 

Implements                  -  -                  -                 39 

Irrigation             -  -                 -                 -           56 

Indian  Corn                 .  -                  -                    88 

Insects             -  .                  -                  -         245 

Lime                      -  -                      -                 67 

Leaves         -  -                     -                 -           73 

Leguminous  Crops  -                     -                    81 

Live  Stock                   -  -                     -         151 

Lettuce             -  .                     -                     234 

Layers                     -  -                     -              237 

Manures                   -  -                     -               68 

Marl            .  -                     -                     -       69 

Mud                     -  -                      -                   70 

Manures,  Preservation  of                -                     -          75 

Manures,  Application  of  -                     -                 77 

Millet              -  -                   -                 -         101 

Mildew  and  Rust  -                     -                    109 

Mangel  Wurtzel           -  -                 -             118 

Meadows             -  -                      -                   146 

Blelons                     -  -                     -              231 

Mustard                   -  -                     -               235 

Mead  or  Metheglin  -                -                 -          252 

Maple  Trees             -  -                 -                    234 

Maple   Sugar  .                   -                 -           255 

Bleat,   Salting  of,  &c.  -                 -                 257 

Neat  Cattle                 -  '            -                    -         160 

Nurseries         -  -                       -                     1S7 

Nasturtium,  or  Indian  Cress  -              -             234 


INDEX. 


287 


Oil  Cakes  -  -  -  163 

Onions  -  -  -  -  225 

Oyster  Plant  ...  233 

Post  and  Rail  Fences  .  .  .38 

Ploughing         ...  ,  .45 

Paring  and  Burning  ...  G3 

Ploughing  in  Green  Crops  .  .  .65 

Peat  .  .  •  .  70 

Potatoes  .  .  .  •  110 

Parsnips  .  .  .  123 — 229 

Peas  ....        126—222 

Pumpkins  .  .  ,  .  128 

Pastures         .  .  .  ...  170 

Pear  Tree         .  .  .  .  202 

Peach  Tree  ....         203 

Plum  Tree  .  .  .  .      207 

Peppers  .        '        .  .  ,  235 

Parsley  .  .  ,  .        235 

Quince  Tree  .  .  ,  209 

Rolling  .  .  .  .61 

Rotation  of  Crops  .  ,  .  81 

Rye  •                 ...  96 

Ruta  Baga             .                 .         ^       .           ^  .       113 

Radishes  .             .                  ,                   .  03Q 

Raspberries         ...                 .                   .  24q 

Soils               ...                 .  .29 

Stone  Wall             ....  38 

Straw             .             .               ,               .  .62 

Stubble               ...                 ,  (53 

Sea  Shells                 .               .                 •  .          68 

Salt               .                    ,                 .                  .  7j 


288 


INDEX, 


Sea  Water          .  .                .                   .72 

Sea  Weed  .                 ,                 ,                     72 

Scrapings  of  Streets  .               .                 .13 

Saw  dust               .  ,                 .                 .73 


Seed 


102 


Sowing                 .                    .                 .  .104 

Smut                            ,                   ,  .                110 

Sheep                 .                 .                   ,  ,164 

Swine           .             ,                  .                    ^  168 

Soiling  of  Cattle             .                 ,  .             172 

Squashes                  .                  .                    .  232 

Sage           ....  235 
Suckers             .                    ...         237 

Stimpson's  Farm         •                  .  ,                 261 

Salem  Aims-House  Farm      '             »  .          262 

Tillage             ...  42 

"     Obstructions  to,               .  .                  44 

Tanner's  bark                 .                       .  .73 

Turnips                 .                      .  .         115-230 

Transplanting  shrubs         .                     .  237 

Timber                 .                       .  .               254 

Vinegar           .                   .                       .  259 

Weeds                     .              •        ,  .               54 

Wheat           ,                   ,                       ,  93 

Wine                     .                     .  .242 

Woodland         .                 .                «  .253 


.ittHe 


